Arakan Kotawchay

Voice of the People Rises at Founding Anniversary of RNDP

2011-08-10T20:06:00.000-07:00

Minbya: People in Min Bya Township in Arakan have raised their voice regarding their daily hardships in the township at a public meeting that was held on Wednesday as part of the founding day of the township's Rakhine National Development Party, said party leader U Tha Kyaw.

"We held a public meeting during the founding ceremony of the RNDP in Min Bya where over 100 people attended and shared their problems and bitter difficulties. They also demanded we present their difficulties and problems on a daily basis to the state and central government," U Tha Kyaw said.

Most of the people were from rural villages and gathered in the meeting to raise their voice about their daily difficulties in their respective villages in Min Bya Township.

"The people especially presented to us to get more fertilizer and loans from the government for their farming because the government-provided fertilizers and loans are insufficient. We promised to submit their demand to the government authority step by step," said U Tha.

A young farmer who attended the ceremony said that he submitted two points in the meeting - first to form village administrations in accordance with the present constitution, and second to inquire with the high authority about the issue of leasing creeks and rivers in Arakan State.

He said, "Now the current government authority has appointed village administrators in the villages across our township against the present constitution. In the constitution, the village administration must be appointed with respectable gentlemen in the village, but the government authority in our township has appointed the former village chairman, who were appointed by the military government in 2006, to be the village administrators. All of the people in our township want the village administrator to be appointed in accordance with the present constitution, so we revealed this in the meeting."

Many people who attended the meeting from rural areas demanded they eliminate the system of leasing creeks and rivers out to businessmen because the system is very challenging for the survival of Arakanese people throughout the state.

"Many people presented the issue of creek, river, and ocean leasing to private businesses by the government. Most Arakanese people have not been able to carry out their daily livelihoods in the creeks and rivers since the government began leasing them to businessmen," he said.

The RNDP won a majority of elected seats in Arakan State in the last election but was unable to form as a majority in the Arakanese state because the government reserved more seats for former military personnel who are aligned with the government-backed USDP.

RNDP leaders will present the people's difficulties to the Arakan State government as well as the central government during the next parliamentary sessions, said U Tha Kyaw.

Demand for release of Burmese Political Prisoners

2011-08-10T20:04:00.001-07:00

Nava Thakuria
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New Delhi: Burma (Myanmar) may be trying to show a democratic face to the international community, but the country still maintains the same old practice of dictatorship. The Southeast Asian nation stage-managed an election in the last year and a kind of democratic regime is set up at Nay Pyi Daw, but the influence of armed forces on the government remains intact. The new government is yet to make any concrete decision to release thousands of political prisoners of Burma.

Raising voice for a real democracy nearly two hundred India-based Burmese activists staged a protest rally in New Delhi on August 8 and called for immediate release of all political prisoners, including the 8888 generation student leaders who have been sentenced for 65 years imprisonment in the country.

“8th August 2011 is the 23rd Anniversary of the Nationwide Popular Pro-Democracy Protests in Burma known as ‘8888 Uprising’. The 8888 uprising was started by students in Rangoon on August 8, 1988. Students’ protests spread throughout the country,” said M. Kim, a young Burmese exile who has been living in India for many years.

The movement involved hundreds of thousands of people from all walks of life, including young school children, demonstrated against the regime and demanded to stop one-party authoritarian state and reform to multi-party democracy government in Burma.

The regime responded by military killings on un-armed peaceful demonstrators. Thousands of deaths and displacement have been attributed to the brutal military crack down during this uprising with more than 3000 people killed and hundreds of students were thrown into jail and many thousands have been forced to leave the country.

“I feel like it happened yesterday, those tragedies and fallen heroes can never be forgotten, the spirit of 8888 movement lives on in the generation that has been carried forwarded ” said Thin Thin Aung, another Burmese exile, who was involved in the 8888 movement and later fled to India in 1988 with hundreds of Burmese youths.

She also added that the military controlled government still rules in Burma with civilian clothes. More than 2000 political prisoners including 8888 generation student leaders are being detained under harsh condition in different jails throughout the country. The military regime continues to commit gross human rights violations including extra judicial killings and rape by military personnel.

Similarly, massive militarization, armed conflicts and displacement of ethnic people remain a major issue for Burma. The regime has not shown sincerity to resolve the issue engaging in political dialogue, rather it has intensified attacks on the ethnic armed groups.

“If Thein Sein government really wants genuine peace and reconciliation in the country, it must show the political will and creates the environment conducive to the political change in Burma that has to start with the immediate and unconditional release of all political prisoners”, asserted Ms Thin Thin.

The India based Burmese democracy activists also called on the Thein Sein led Burmese government on the occasion of the 23rd anniversary of the 8888 people’s uprising, to declare nationwide ceasefire and to commence inclusive political dialogue with Daw Aung San Suu Kyi and other stake holders.

Burmese Township Administrator under Investigation for Love Affair with Muslim Girl

2011-08-10T20:01:00.001-07:00

Maungdaw: The General Administrator for Maungdaw Township in northern Arakan State has been under investigation by a special judicial body after his alleged affair with a Muslim girl became the talk of the township.

An official from the district administrative office, under a condition of anonymity, told Narinjara that the township administrator U Aung Kyaw Oo has been under investigation by authorities since last Wednesday.

“Higher authorities came to know about the matter after an exile media source reported [it], and now an authority team is looking into the matter and questioning U Aung Kyaw Oo,” said the official.

He said the judicial authority team is led by the Maungdaw District Administrator and included another two administrators of Buthidaung and Rathidaung Townships.

The judicial team first examined U Aung Kyaw Oo in the afternoon and his alleged lover Samira ( alias) Sandar Win later in the evening last Wednesday in district administration office. The team is still continuing their investigation and interviewing some town’s people including the girl’s father U Mohammad Shah.

A local resident also said U Aung Kyaw Oo’s unlawful love affair with the girl first became the talk of the township long ago, sparking anger among the Muslim community in the area. However the judicial team would not be able to investigate this easily.

“Their love affair has been a well known talk in our township and has sparked anger, especially amongst the Muslim community in our area, but it would not be possible for the judicial team to get much truth about their affair because no one would dare to give true statements as the members of the judicial team are U Aung Kyaw Oo’s colleagues and friends”, he said.

According to the local sources, Samira’s family had to move their residence from Bomhu Ward in the town to Alaethan kyaw village in southern Maungdaw Township since last month as some people in the ward had threatened to attack their house due to the ongoing unlawful and anti-social love affair, and the fact that she was living together with U Aung Kyaw Oo.

U Aung Kyaw Oo has allegedly been living with Samira in her house, as well as taking her in his official car to his residence for a week or a month at a time.

“Their love affair has sparked anger among the Muslim community because living together without official marriage is an anti-social act as well as a punishable offense according to the local marriage laws [that are] imposed for the Muslims by the authorities here”, the resident said.

Book Written by USDP Candidate Hits Lowest Sale

2011-08-10T20:00:00.001-07:00

Sittwe: The book written and published by the Maung Kauk San (Pray Rakhine), also known as Kyaunthar Ngamann, a well known Arakanese writer and a candidate for the Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP) in the last election, has had the lowest sales known in western Burma’s Arakan State.

Maung Kauk San (Pray Rakhine) had published the book, entitled “Socio-Economy and the Geography of Arakan State Today” in July, but there is the lower sale of the book, a book seller from the Arakan capital of Sittwe said.

“I have put number of copies of his book on sale in my stall since it was published because he is one of the most popular authors in our state, but so far I have sold a few copies of his book. Many readers turned away after seeing his name on the book,” said the seller.

He said it is likely because he had competed in the last election as a candidate for the USDP, the military proxy, and leading party in the present regime.

According to reader circles in Arakan State, as there have been very few books published on Arakanese issues readers usually rush to buy a copy whenever a new book on this topic is coming out.

A reader who lives in Rangoon said the newly published Maung Kauk San book is the lowest selling, because he is no longer popular among his audience after he has joining the USDP party.

“Maung Kauk San is popular among his audiences no more, ever since he joined the military backed USDP party. Because of that his book is at the lowest sale point, despite being a fresh publication”, said the reader.

It is learnt that Maung Kauk San (Rakhine Pray) has written the detailed account of the geography of the Arakan State with many insights into the location, population, living density, climate, environment, natural resources and products, crops, infrastructure and economy of each of the township in the state.

He has also written about the state’s flag, seal, national dresses, ancient history and archaeology of the state, along with the broader issues of religion, culture, traditional customs and ethnic races in his book.

According to the sources, his popularity among the Arakanese audience has fallen drastically due to his association with the military backed USDP party. He competed as a USDP candidate for a seat in the peoples’ parliament in the constituency of Sittwe in the last election, but was defeated by his rival U Maung Nyo from the Rakhine Nationalities Development Party.

Torrential Rains Ravage Arakan’s Gwa Township for the Third Time

2011-08-10T19:59:00.001-07:00

Gwa: The torrential rains that have been triggering floods and landslides have hit Gwa Township in southeastern Arakan State again, after the township had been already affected twice since the start of this year’s rainy season. A resident of the township said the downpour had started last Saturday and is still continuing, triggering landslides and floods and causing more difficulties for the already troubled local peoples in the township.

Gwa Township Bridge in southeastern Arakan

“It has already been three days of heavy rains in our area, now the roads are damaged and impassable due to the flooding and landslides, many paddy fields are flooded again and the people here are now facing greater troubles because they have been already affected by the recent rains in our township ”, said the resident.

He said Gwa-Thandwe road, the main transportation link in the township, is totally impassable as the road is being blocked by a massive landslide from the hill near the Sat Twar Rwa village twenty miles away from Gwa and a number of bridges on the road are also damaged due to flooding.

He also said that the prices of commodities and edibles including rice are skyrocketing in the township as the roads are broken and the traffic and transportation to other townships has been cut off.

A farmer from the area also said most of the farmers in the area are having to abandon their paddy farms as they have no seed left for re-cultivating their farms after being damaged by the floods generated by the continual heavy rains.

“Most of us have to abandon our paddy farming because we have no more seeds left and no money to sow and replant our farms. Our first cultivation from the start of the rainy season had already gone in the recent flood and now our paddy seedlings that we re-cultivated have been washed away and are still being submerged in the flood in the current rains, so we will not be able to do our farming again”, said the farmer.

He said that the President U Thein Sein has recently visited the flood affected villages in their township, but provided nothing except a CDMA phone to each of the village as government relief.

According to the sources, there is still no governmental organizations or NGO’s doing any rehabiliation work, or rendering assistance or relief to the flood victims in the township. Some well-wishing local people are collecting rice and other donations from more able people and households in the area and helping the victims. But their help is not enough for the victims and many of those have been suffering from lack of regular meals and famine.

Public Protest Saves the Golden Buddha of Arakan Again

2011-08-05T23:17:00.001-07:00

Mrauk U: Public protest has saved the golden Buddha statue along with other artifacts for a second time after authorities tried to take the religious and cultural heritage pieces from Arakan's ancient city of Mrauk U to the Burmese capital Naypyidaw.

A local resident who was involved in the protest said a team of authorities led by deputy director of the archaeological department and general administrator of Mrauk U Township attempted to take the statues and artifacts a second time on 17 July, after calling upon 50 town elders at the Ratana Man Aung Monastery where the objects are being kept in exhibition for devotional offerings.

"We, the townspeople, were alerted after government officers escorted by the police and firemen entered the monastery where the statues and artifacts are being kept, so we went and besieged the monastery and protested against the officers taking our devotional and cultural heritage from our native town, and then the officials gave up their plan and left the monastery without taking our heritage," said the resident.

He said the township administrator has told the elders that they came to take the artifacts on orders from the president and chief minister, and they would later plan to take them through the trustees of the pagoda.

The golden Buddha statue, along with many other kinds of statues and artifacts, was found on 30 May, 2011, from the shrines of Lokamezu Pagoda that is situated at the Bawdi Shwe Gu Hills two furlongs north of Mrauk U Town and is currently under renovation.

On 3 June, 2011, the authorities tried to take the golden statue to Naypyidaw for the first time but were unsuccessful after many townspeople blocked their vehicles and demanded they leave the statue in its native town. Since then, the golden statue, along with other statues and artifacts, has been kept for devotional offerings in the Ratana Man Aung Monastery.

A town elder who is a trustee of the pagoda also said the authorities are attempting to take the artifacts, especially the golden statue, by any means.

"They may take away the golden statue in particular some day by force or any way they can. They have been forcing us to hand over the statue and other artifacts to the local archaeological department because they are antiques and related to the department. Now the abbot of the monastery is on travel and he will be back on 24 July. After discussion with the abbot and townspeople we have to reply and tell them if we can hand over the statues and artifacts to the department," he said.

He said no one in the town will agree to hand over the statues and artifacts, which are their invaluable heritage, to the department, as they understand the authorities will take the objects to Naypyidaw.

According to other sources, the Burmese regime often takes historical heritage objects that are found in the town and other ancient places in Arakan State to mainland Burma in order to eliminate Arakanese heritage.

Last year, 70 golden coins and one ruby ring that were found at the Phara Paw Pagoda in Mrauk U were taken from the local archaeological department to Naypyidaw under the pretense of examining their authenticity, but those antiques were never returned to the department in Mrauk U and no one knows their whereabouts.

The artifacts found in the repositories of the Lokamezu Pagoda that are now being stored at the Ratana Man Aung Monastery include one gold statue, 23 bronze statues, 200 statues of relics repository, two marble statues, two stone statues, one votive tablet, golden containers for relics, a foot-high bronze showcase, two golden artifacts, two bronze artifacts, and one glazed mud artifact.

The golden Buddha statue is nearly a foot high and weighs 4.64 viss, and the local archaeologists believe the statue was cast in the early 8th century CE in Arakan.

Anarchy in the UK helps safeguard our heritage

2011-08-05T23:15:00.001-07:00

Everyone remembers 1970s punk band the Sex Pistols for the raucous lyrics, their slamming of the Royal Family and their general anarchy in the UK.
But at no time does anyone recall the band’s concern for the sustainability of the country’s crumbling historic buildings or the upkeep of the coast and countryside.

The Sex Pistols in 1977

Now visitors to National Trust properties in the West can recapture the punk within them with the help of some of the legends of the era.
In a striking change of direction for all concerned, the punk band that used to sneer at the Queen is to help the 116-year-old trust maintain its historic houses.
The band’s most famous song, Anarchy in the UK, features on a new fundraising compilation album released this week by the National Trust and Decca Records.
Called Never Mind the Dovecotes — Punk Collection, in homage to The Sex Pistols’ only proper album Never Mind The Bollocks, it also includes classic songs by The Jam, X-Ray Spex, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Sham 69, The Fall and John Cooper Clarke.
It sits rather uncomfortably with other National Trust and Decca collaborations such as Celtic Collection, Land of Hope and Glory, and Classic Voices II.
There is a precedent of sorts, however. Last year Jarvis Cocker, frontman for the Sheffield band Pulp, made an album for the trust but it was compiled from natural sounds at 13 of its venues. National Trust: The Album has been downloaded 20,000 times from iTunes.
Never Mind the Dovecotes is rather more abrasive.
Kevin Long, product manager at Decca Records and compiler of the album, said: “When punk rock hit British society in the late 1970s, it was met by the ‘establishment’s’ distrust and disgust. Today, the influence of the punk movement on British fashion and music is incalculable.”
Proceeds will support the trust’s work. The copyright for all of the songs on the 18-track album are owned by Decca and other labels.
It is not the first time that a Sex Pistol has supported the National Trust.
In 2003 John Lydon, better known as Johnny Rotten, voiced a radio advert for the trust on Classic FM.
He has since donned an English gentleman’s tweed suit to appear in a TV commercial for butter.He later rebutted criticism that he had sold out by claiming his fee had paid the advance on a UK tour by Public Image Ltd., the band he formed after the Sex Pistols.
The Sex Pistols were formed in Malcolm McLaren and Vivienne Westwood’s King’s Road boutique Sex. They played their first gig at St Martin’s College of Art in November 1975 and by the end of the next year they had found nationwide notoriety by swearing on TV. Their career peaked in 1977 with the single God Save The Queen disrupting the Silver Jubilee celebrations and the release of their album, which went to No 1.
Phillippa Green, National Trust brand licensing manager, said that the Sex Pistols were now a part of British heritage. “Nearly half a million of the trust’s members were aged between 16 and 25 in 1977, the birth of the British punk music scene. Over 30 years on, many of them now enjoy family outings at parks, beaches and historic houses. Perhaps this collection will offer them the chance to rekindle a little of that youthful spirit.”

http://www.thisissomerset.co.uk/Anarchy-UK-helps-safeguard-heritage/story-13078082-detail/story.html

Public Suffers from Fare Hikes, Poor Service after Privatization of Riverine Ships in Arakan

2011-08-05T23:14:00.001-07:00

By Takaloo
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Sittwe: Local people in coastal Arakan State in western Burma have been suffering from the enormous rise in fares and decline in service for riverine travels after the Inland Water Transport Department recently privatized the most significant and essential shipping lines in the state.

A commuter from the capital Sittwe said the private companies have raised ship fares by two to six times as much as the fares that were being charged during implementation of the IWT.

"Now we have to pay 1,500 Kyat for a ticket from Sittwe to Mrauk U, 3,000 Kyat to Buthidaung, 8,000 Kyat to Taunggok, and and extra 50 Kyat for filling out the form to buy tickets for a particular journey. Before privatization, we had to pay only 300 Kyat for Mrauk U, 500 Kyat for Buthidaung, and 3,000 Kyat for Taunggok," the commuter said.

However, he added that those fares are just for sitting on the bare floors of the vessels, and passengers have to pay an additional 1,000 to 3,000 Kyat for a chair, and 3,000 to 6,000 Kyat for a special room on the vessels.

Narinjara has contacted the regional head office of the department in Sittwe for more information about the hiring of the ships to private companies, but the department declined to give any comments on the move.

According to local residents, the riverine itineraries from the capital Sittwe to Buthidaung, a distance of 80 miles, and to Taunggok, a distance of 224 miles, are essential because there are no road links between the capital and those and a number of intermediate towns. Only Mrauk U, 40 miles away, can be reached by road from Sittwe.

The department of Inland Water Transport has hired out nine passenger-cum-cargo ships to the private companies under a six-month agreement that started 12 July, 2011. The three ships sailing between Sittwe and Taunggok have been hired out to the U Kyauk Taung Company, while the three ships sailing between Sittwe and Buthidaung have been hired to the Thiha Raza Company, and the remaining ships sailing between Sittwe and Mrauk U have been hired to the U Thein Soe Company.

The owners of the companies that have taken leases on the public vessels are local businessmen who are also senior members of the regional Union Solidarity and Development Party, the military proxy party that is leading the current government in Burma.

A sailor from Dyanyawaddy-1, one of the three vessels plying between Sittwe and Buthidaung, said apart from the fare hikes, the services for passengers have declined in quality, as the companies are using the vessels in large part for the transport of their own cargo.

"Not only have fares risen, services for passengers on the ships are also becoming poorer than before, because the companies are especially hiring the ships for transporting their own cargo for their own profit, and they are not thinking about the well-being of the passengers traveling on the ships," said the sailor.

He added that the companies are able to increase their profits because they are being sold the oil to operate the ships at the government rate, which is far below the market rate in Burma.

According to the sources, the authorities of the Inland Water Transport have gradually stopped a number of ships sailing across Arakan State, leaving just these nine ships, after the Sittwe-Rangoon Highway and a number of connecting roads opened in the state in 2000.

However, the public still depends mainly on the river routes for their travels inside the state, as the roads have been in ruins with many potholes and collapsed sections since shortly after they were opened, and every year during the rainy season sections are washed away and become totally impassable with their weak structure and lack of repairs.

Road infrastructure in the state is unreliable for travel, with almost every road, including the Sittwe-Rangoon Highway, still closed after being damaged and left in ruins by the disastrous floods that swept across the state during the last week.

Sources said that river travel and transportation is still very important for the people of Arakan, a state abundant in creeks and rivers. There are also a number of private companies that operate express boats for passengers on most river routes in the state, but most of the general public are unable to afford those fares for their own travels.

"The current public ship lines being privatized by the authorities are essential and significant for the public commuters in our state, and this just clearly shows how the authorities have neglected the publics' difficulties and woes for their travel and transportation within their own state," said the commuter from Sittwe.

President Displeased with Rerouting of Railroad Through Arakan's Ancient City

2011-08-05T23:12:00.001-07:00

Mrauk U: Burmese President U Thein Sein has expressed displeasure over the railroad that was built through the main archaeological site in Mrauk U in western Burma's Arakan State has to be rerouted because of protests by local residents.

The president is said to have stated that rerouting the railroad has caused "national loss and delay for the development schemes," during his meeting with two local lawmakers during his visit to the town last Friday.

"The president called upon the two of us and talked about the railroad in our town. He told us that rerouting the path of the railroad has caused loss and delay for the state's development goals, and that it was not good to disturb while the state has been striving for the benefit of the general people," said U Aung Tun Tha, one of two lawmakers who met the president.

He added that the president called him and his colleague U Kyaw Kyaw to a separate meeting and talked about nothing more than his displeasure over the railroad that had to be re-planned.

U Aung Tun Tha is a member of the people's parliament, while U Kyaw Kyaw is a member of the national parliament. Both of them are residents of the town and were elected from the Rakhine Nationalities Development Party.

"The president also told us that it is not good to spread news without necessity and ordered us to consult with the national government if anything matters. He said because of the wide-spreading news, the proposed plan of the railroad had been ruined and re-planning to divert the route has caused a great delay for opening it in time," said U Aung Tun Tha.

Many invaluable ancient cultural and religious monuments, including pagodas, moats, and city walls, were destroyed in November 2010 by the Burmese regime to make way for the railway being built to link the capital Sittwe in the north with Ann, a military town in the south. The original route went through the main archaeological zone in Mrauk U.

The regime stopped demolition for the railway after facing public protests. Pagodas on the Thazintan Hills, Ngakyin Ai Moat, Raehla Moat, Raehla Fortress, Minthamee Moat, Shwezinkha Pathway, Ahmyinttaung Raehla Fortress, and Pyisoegyi Pagoda have already been destroyed, while many more famous pagodas and monuments, including Koe Thaung Pagoda, were being threatened by the proposed route.

It has been learnt from the MPs that the authorities have already drawn a new plan to divert the railroad from the former route that was protested by local residents.

Sittwe University Students and Three-Wheeler Drivers Clash, School Closed Temporarily

2011-08-05T23:11:00.001-07:00

By Tun Tun
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Sittwe: Sittwe University closed for a few hours yesterday after a clash broke out between Sittwe University students and three-wheeler drivers after the drivers had increased their fares, said one student.

The incident occurred suddenly at 1:00 pm at the Sittwe University entrance gate after the drivers increased their fares from 100 Kyat to 200 Kyat for a trip between downtown Sittwe and the university.

"Because of the clash, there was unrest at Sittwe University. The authority quickly closed down all entrance gates of Sittwe University for nearly two hours and did not allow any students to leave the university compound during that period," a student from Sittwe said.

The conflict ended after Sittwe University authorities negotiated between the students and drivers on the fare increase on routes between downtown Sittwe and the university. However, around 30 students marched on the streets from the university to the intersection located near the largest generator in Sittwe after the clash.

Another student said, "We were unsatisfied with the increased school taxi fare. Because of this we marched in the street to voice our concern about the taxi fare increase. But we withdrew our protest when we reached the intersection of the largest generator after the university authority promised us the taxi fare would not increase again."

The university authority sent all students back to the homes in a school vehicle in order to avoid any untoward incidents.

Speaking to Narinjara, a mother of a student from Sittwe University said, "My son arrived back safely in the evening by a bus that was arranged by the university authority. I heard there was a clash between students and taxi drivers at Sittwe University. Now I am happy because my son safely arrived back home."

The university authority pressured the taxi drivers not to collect more than 100 Kyat from students for a route between downtown and campus.

In 2009 and 2010, students from Sittwe University and Sittwe Technological University staged similar protests in the Arakan Capital against increasing bus fares.

Villagers Face Lawsuit for Demanding Constitutional Appointments of Village Administrators

2011-08-05T23:05:00.000-07:00

Min Bya: Seven villagers from villages in Munbra Township in western Burma's Arakan State are facing charges after complaining and demanding the authorities appoint their village administrator in accordance with the 2008 constitution.

The villagers are from the village groups of Thunpone Chaung, Chaungchay, and Thakpone Chaung in Munbra Township, and they are facing charges of defamation by the administrators of those village groups, said a village elder from the area.

"The administrators who have filed a suit against the seven villagers are U Tun Gree of Thunpone Chaung, U Saw Hla Aung of Chaungchay, and U Sein Kyaw Won of Thakpone. They have accused the villagers of misleading other villagers in their village tracts with defamations against the administrators," said the elder on condition of anonymity.

He added that the administrators have been serving as heads of the village groups since 2006. As they have done nothing to improve the welfare of the villages during their tenure, almost all villagers from those three village tracts have submitted a signed petition to the township administration authorities demanding new administrators be appointed in their areas according to the 2008 constitution that was adopted in April of this year.

In retaliation against the villagers, the administrators have filed charges in the township court against the selected seven villagers who were identified as leading the villagers against them.

In Article 289 of the Burmese constitution that was drafted by the previous SPDC military regime in 2008, a person who has integrity and moral uprightness and is admired in the ward or village must be appointed as the village administrator.

"They have been charged 211, a legal section covering fraud, and their case started on 29 April, and was heard again on 2 August in the township court," said the elder.

The villagers being sued by the administrators include one from Zeepun Gree Village and one from Khwasone Village in the Thunpone Chaung group, four from Chaungchay, and one from Thakpone Village group.

The elder said most of the residents from those village tracts are disappointed with the authorities for allowing their own villagers to be brought to trial by the administrators, and are ready to support them if the court rules against the seven in the defamation case.

University Students Stage Protest Over School Transportation Fare Hike in Arakan

2011-08-05T23:02:00.001-07:00

By Tun Tun
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Sittwe: Over 400 students from the Technical University in Sittwe in western Burma's Arakan State have staged a demonstration against the hike in school transportation fares by walking in a procession in the streets on Wednesday.

A student who participated in the demonstration said they walked over five miles to the office of the state administration in downtown Sittwe from their university to protest the fare increase.

"We started the march from our university at 1 pm to the general administration office downtown to protest the hike in fares for our school transportation," said the student.

She added that there were disturbances and attempts by authorities to block the students on their march to the office, but no student was arrested.

"There were disturbances by the police and intelligence officials on our way marching to the office, but no student was arrested. We arrived in front of the office around 2 pm and the state's chief minister and responsible officials, including our university principal, came to us to discuss the matter, and they promised to reduce the car fares to 100 Kyat from 200 kyat," she said.

The source said that students withdrew their protest at 4 pm after authorities promised to get the car fares reduced to the previous rate of 100 Kyat.

Another students said they will continue their protest if the authorities' promises are not met.

"We will continue our protest if the care fare is not reduced to 100 Kyat from 200 kyat, as being promised by the authorities," he said.

According to the students, mini vehicles such as three wheelers and cars are running routes between the university and downtown Sittwe for school transportation using fuels provided by the government at below market costs. They have staged the protest because the drivers increased the fares up to 400 Kyat.

Similar protests were carried out occasionally during 2009 and 2010 by university students in Sittwe whenever their school transportation fees were increased.

Burmese Army Launches Major Offensive in Shan State

2011-07-19T05:42:00.000-07:00

By SAI ZOM HSENG
The Burmese Army is launching a major offensive against the Shan State Army (SSA), in a conflict that has already affected about 30 villages in northern and central Shan State, according to SSA sources.

The Burmese troops will soon overrun the armed group's headquarters in Wan Hai, Mong Hsu Township, said Col Sai Htoo, the assistant secretary general of the SSA's political wing, the Shan State Progressive Party (SSPP), which is also located in Wan Hai.

Around 300 local people have fled the area and schools have also been shut as fighting intensifies. Most residents have moved to urban areas, and teachers were instructed on Tuesday morning to return to Lashio, the capital of northern Shan State, said Sai Htoo.

Speaking to The Irrawaddy on Tuesday, Sai Htoo said that the SSA, formerly known as the Shan State Army-North and led by Col Pang Fa, expected to lose control of its headquarters in the very near future.

“The commander of the [Burmese Army's] Northeast Military Command is now at the front line commanding his troops and battalions. There is an 80 percent chance that we will lose our headquarters very soon, but we will continue fighting using guerrilla warfare.”
Yesterday, skirmishes between the two sides brought the fighting closer to Wan Hai, with Burmese troops using artillery against the Shan troops until later Monday evening, according to local resident Sai Aung.

Last week fighting was reported every day in Kye-thi-Marn Sam Township, especially around Doi Sai, a mountain around 16 km (10 miles) from Wan Hai and a key location on the SSA's line of defense. According to Sai Htoo, Burmese Army troops have been ordered to seize Wan Hai within seven days.

Burmese battalions under the control of the Northeastern Military Command are coordinating their attacks against the Shan troops with Burmese Army battalions from Military Operation Commands 1 and 2, which are based in Kyaukme and Mong Naung, respectively, and include artillery battalions.

A spokesperson for the SSA/SSPP said that the combined strength of the Burmese Army battalions engaged in the offensive is around 1,500 troops, while the SSA has about 1,000 troops in Wan Hai.

Although sources said that there have been numerous casualties among both the Burmese and Shan troops, no further details were available. Injured Burmese troops were reportedly evacuated from the area to major cities with helicopters from Nam Hsan Air Force Base.

The SSPP/SSA, a former ceasefire armed group, declared in May that it was now cooperating with the former Shan State Army-South, led by Lt-Gen Yawd Serk. The two groups have now united under the banner of the SSA.

Arakanese in USA to Hold Traditional Water Festival

2011-07-19T05:39:00.000-07:00

New York: Arakanese living in the USA will celebrate the 17th annual Arakanese Thingyan or New Year water festival in New York, according to the Thingyan Association, the organizer of the festival.

The festival will be held from 11am to 4pm local time on 17 July, at 100 West 84th Street, PS9 Playground between Columbus Avenue and Amsterdam Avenue, in Manhattan, New York.

Ko Kyaw Tha Hla, the managing director for organizing the festival, said the festival is held to show the Arakanese traditional culture to people internationally as well as to the different ethnic peoples from Burma living in USA.

"This is the most enjoyable Arakanese traditional festival and we celebrate it especially to make known our culture to the peoples here in USA. There are also people of Burmese origin who were born or brought up here and do not know about our lovely Arakanese traditional culture and I hope our celebration will not only enlighten to the people about our culture, but will give a chance to them to have a great fun in our festival", said Ko Kyaw Tha Hla.

The new year festival or Thingyan is traditionally held during the month "Tankhu" that starts a new year on the Arakanese lunar calendar and usually coincides with mid-April in the Roman calendar. Playing water among the adults and children is the joyous feature in the festival, which is for quenching the summer heat and for getting rid of troubles in the bygone year in tropical Arakan State in Burma. It is also distinguished for using traditional race-boats filled with water with the waiting young women holding bowls under a pavilion for pouring water with their interested young men and the water of love at the pavilion may lead most of the young peoples to their conjugal knots.

The organizing Thingyan Association said that because April is too cold to celebrate the festival, particularly with playing water, it has to be planned to celebrate in mid-July with the coming of summer in New York.

It said apart from the playing water, the festival will be celebrated with traditional singing and dancing, exhibition of arts and crafts, selling of traditional foods, and children games.

"Wet or dry, come to experience colorful multi-ethnic culture and heritage of Burma", invited the organizer. The detailed plans of the festival also can be read at http://www.thingyan.org.

State Paper Criticizes Former Rulers for Burma's Poverty

2011-07-19T05:37:00.000-07:00

An official newspaper of the Burmese regime ran an article that blamed the rising poverty rate in the country on the "unqualified" rulers from former regimes in the country.

The Kyemon, one of the official newspapers of the Burmese regime, carried an article on 10 July written by Wai Yan Maung, who criticized the rulers of former regimes for poverty in the country.

Wai Yan Maung commented in his article, titled "Let's Participate and Help in Unity as a National", that the rise of poverty in the country is due to consecutive low-standard rulers in the country.

The author stated, "if I have to frankly overview the situation of the country that is figuratively called the land that bears gold and rich in natural resources, it has a rising poverty rate over 26% that is due to consecutive hold on state power by unqualified rulers who have been neglecting work for the poor sector of the country."

He also said that the country faces vast inequality between the rich and poor due to the weakness of rulers who have over-prioritized the country's economy for their own close associates and cronies, and the slow pace of development in the country is due to the weakness of their governance, with most of the people suffering because the rulers favored just a small handful of people.

He added that the benefits of the country have been effectively lost for the well-being of the country because of their misrule.

According to readers, the article that criticized the consecutive rulers of the country will especially embarrass recent military regime headed by Senior General Than Shwe, which ruled the country for the last 23 years.

Readers also say they see the article as a blow to the retired head of state, General Than Shwe, other senior officials from the armed forces who are still holding state power after shedding their uniforms, and their relatives and associates who are still controlling much of the economy.

http://www.narinjara.com

Farmers Become Tenants on Their Own Farmland in Arakan

2011-07-19T05:34:00.001-07:00

By Maung Rammar
-------------------------
Kyauk Taw: Farmers in western Burma's Arakan State have become tenants on their own farmland as the army has been renting the land for cultivation after confiscating it from them.

A farmer from Apaukwa Village in Kyauktaw Township said the army has been renting the confiscated land at a rate of 25 baskets - a Burmese unit of measure for rice, approximately 11 kilograms in a basket- of paddy per acre to the farmers who owned the land previously.

Army signboards in confiscated farms

"We have to hire our own farmland from the army for our cultivation at a payment of 25 baskets of paddy for an acre of land, since the army forcibly confiscated our land. We are forced to do so because we have become landless and have no choice for our livelihoods of cultivation in our area," said the farmer.

According to the farmers, there are over 280 acres of arable land being confiscated by army battalion 539 of Sa Ka Kha, or Military Operations Command 9, in the villages of Apaukwa, Kyaoak Taungpyin, Thakkay Chaung, and Kan Zauk in southern Kyauktaw Township, and the army has been renting the land to the farmers for paddy that is used for income and soldiers' rations.

Apart from those farmlands, army battalions 374, 375, and 376 of Sa Ka Kha 9 have also confiscated nearly 400 acres of land from the farmers from the villages of Lanmataw, Daungtaungyaw, Nyaungpunhla, Tharaktapu, and Tharakoak, and they have been leasing out the land to the farmers in a similar manner.

It was reported that land confiscation by the army in Arakan State started during the reign of Maung Oo as commander of Western Command under the SPDC regime around 2005.

The farmer said that they are left without any profit and it is like working to feed the army because they have to give 25 baskets of their paddy produced each season.

"It is like working to feed the army because if we cultivate and acre of land, it can not produce 100 baskets of paddy and we have to invest everything, like labor, seed, fertilizer, insecticides, and everything that is needed for cultivation, and we have no profit but we are working to survive ourselves," said the farmer.

According to farmer sources, this situation is occurring not only in Kyauktaw Township; every other township in Arakan State has been suffering the same fate with over-militarization in the state.

The army's battalions have been confiscating arable land from the public not only for construction of their bases, but also for their finances and rations for soldiers in the battalions. According to farmers from Ponnakyunt Township in northeastern Arakan State, the local army battalions forcibly confiscated more than 200 acres of farmland from the local farmers last year because land they had confiscated earlier was lost to railroad construction in the area.

There were only three battalions of the Burmese army in Arakan State, mostly based in Sittwe, until 1989, when the current military took hold of power. Since then, the army junta has extended its battalions and there are now over 60 battalions based in Arakan State.

Sources said that local people in Arakan State have been suffering from the rights abuses and land confiscation, illegal tax collection, monopolization of commerce and the economy, and various restrictions and oppression with over-militarization and strengthening of the armed forces in the state.

They added that although it was declared that power was transferred to the democratic government in Burma, they have not seen anything chance from the way things were run with the former military regime.

Bangladesh Dispatches Vessels to Search for Burmese Poachers

2011-07-19T05:32:00.000-07:00

Dhaka: The Bangladesh Coast Guard and Navy have launched an operation to drive out Burmese poachers after the high authority reported that many fishing boats from Burma have been entering Bangladesh waters for fishing, reported a Bangladesh newspaper.

The report said that Coast Guard and Naval forces have launched searches for the Burmese fishing boats in likely spots along the maritime boundary in the Bay of Bengal after receiving direction from the high authority.

A Coast Guard operation officer said they were informed by the fishing department on Saturday that some trawlers from Burma were fishing in the Bay in Bangladesh territory.

Afterward, Coast Guard patrol boats from four outposts - St. Martin Station, Teknaf Station, Cox's Bazar Station, and Shahpuri Station - rushed to the reported locations to drive out Burmese fishing boats, he said.

The Bangladesh Navy has also dispatched ships near the maritime boundary to search for Burmese fishing boats after receiving instructions from the high authority regarding the Burmese poachers.

On directives of the high command from headquarters, a naval ship is patrolling the reported spots, but there were no details on where the navy ship was patrolling at the moment.

However, Bangladesh authorities have not yet seized any fishing boats in Bangladesh waters as there are many canals flowing from Burma into the Bay of Bengal that fishermen are able to use to enter Bangladesh waters.

According to the report, Coast Guard members already started interrogations and gathering information from the locals and Bangladeshi fishermen who regularly go fishing in the Bay regarding the Burmese fishing boats intruding in Bangladesh waters.

There is still an unresolved maritime boundary dispute between Burma and Bangladesh, and both countries are being extra cautious about protecting their current boundary.

http://www.narinjara.com

Bangladesh and Burma to Resume Direct Air Link

2011-07-11T20:59:00.001-07:00

Dhaka: Bangladesh and Burma will resume direct air links soon, after flights have been stopped for more than four years, according to an official from Bangladesh's commerce ministry.

Bangladesh airline Biman, the only airline that had been flying between Dhaka and Rangoon, stopped its flights before the end of 2006 due to financial losses, and since then travelers from both countries have to transit through the Bangkok airport.

Bangladesh and Burma are now working to resume the direct air link that will save much time and costs for travelers between the two countries without requiring any medium transit, he said.

The source also said the commerce ministry has already requested its government restore direct air links to Burma in order to boost bilateral trade, including the border trade between the two countries.

Burma is the third largest importer of Bangladesh pharmaceuticals and the re-opening of direct air links between the two countries will help to boost bilateral trade as well as border trade, added the source.

Burma has signed aviation accords with 43 countries and regions around the world since 1949.

Flights from 14 foreign airlines are now flying to Rangoon in Burma, including Air China, China Southern Airline, Indian Airlines, Thai Airways International, Thai Air Asia, Bangkok Airways, Phuket Airline, Malaysian Airlines, Vietnam Airlines, Silk Air, Qatar Airways, and Jetstar Asia.

Arakan the Second Poorest State in Burma

2011-07-11T20:58:00.000-07:00

Dhaka: Arakan ranks second after Chin State for poverty among the fourteen states and divisions in poverty-stricken Burma, according to a report of results from a survey on household living conditions.

The report, titled "Poverty Profile", was published by the UNDP in Burma in June 2011 and was based on surveys taken in 2004 - 2005 and 2009 - 2010 through its Integrated Household Living Conditions Assessment that has been implemented with the Burmese government's Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development.

The report said the highest rate of poverty is in Chin State, at 73%, followed by Arakan State at 44%, Tanintharyi Division at 33%, Shan State at 33%, and Ayeyerwaddy Division at 32%.

Arakan State in the western coastal region has potential, with its geographically rich natural resources, to become a developed and prosperous state compared to other states and regions in Burma. But, Arakanese intellectual Dr. Aye Kyaw from New York says, Arakan being ruled as a hidden colony with militarization for many years is the main reason it has become an impoverished state in Burma.

"Arakan is just a hidden colony existing under cover of a state with over militarization by the Burmese forces for so many years. Now there are over 60 battalions based in the state and they are not the forces being deployed for the well-being of the state, but for monopolizing the state's resources for their own benefit, and these are the reasons why Arakan became impoverished," said Dr. Aye Kyaw.

He said the forces have confiscated many arable lands from the local people and contained the people's access to natural resources with strict rules within the state.

Dr. Aye Chan, an Arakanese professor from Japan's Kanta University, also said the high level of poverty afflicts the state because the government and its armed forces has monopolized even resources such as land, waters, and forests, on which the local residents depend for the livelihoods.

"All natural products and resources are being monopolized by the government and its forces in Arakan State. For example, the local residents have no right to fish in their nearby waters such as ponds, creeks, rivers, and the sea, for their livelihoods without paying a huge toll and tax to them. That is the reason why the highest level of poverty afflicts the state," said Dr. Aye Chan.

He said despite the multibillion international business projects being constructed for exporting gas and oil found in onshore and offshore fields in Arakan State, most of the Arakanese people are fleeing their homeland to find jobs elsewhere to survive.

Over three million people are now living in Arakan State and it is estimated that over a million people have left their homeland for mainland Burma and neighboring countries due to political oppression and economic hardships in their state.

According to the report, Arakan also has the lowest level of literacy, with 71% of primary enrollment rate and 32% of secondary enrollment rate.

In terms of electricity, Arakan State has the lowest access rate, with just 26% of the population having access to electricity, most of whom are urban dwellers.
However, the report said the poverty rate has fallen by 6% across the whole of Burma according to the 2009 - 2010 survey as compared to the 2004 - 2005 survey, and the current poverty rate in the country is 26%, of which 70% is from people living in rural areas.

Voice of the People Rises at Founding Anniversary of RNDP

2011-07-11T20:56:00.001-07:00

EC Judges Rule Against RNDP MPs in Election Fraud Case

2011-07-11T20:55:00.000-07:00

Pauktaw: The special tribunal of Burma's election commission in Naypyidaw has ruled against three elected MPs from the Rakhine Nationalities Development Party on charges of election fraud filed against them by their rivals from the Union Solidarity and Development Party.

The three MPs from the RNDP who lost in the case are U Kyaw Tun Aung, candidate from the national parliament, U Aung Kyaw Zan, candidate from the people's parliament, and U Maung Kyaw Thein, candidate from the state parliament. All three were elected in Pauktaw Township in northeastern Arakan State.

U Maung Kyaw Thein said the judgement by the EC was unfair and they would appeal after discussion with legal experts and senior members of their party.

"The judgement by the EC are quite unacceptable and we believe it is just an act of bullying against us because we won more than twice the votes our rivals got in the election. I received more than 16,000 votes while my rival got only 6,000 votes. It is totally unfair and we are now preparing with our seniors and legal experts in our party to submit our appeal for an amendment to the judges," said U Maung Kyaw Thein.

The RNDP, the local Arakanese ethnic party, won 34 seats in Arakan State in the election held in November 2010. Nine of those elected candidates were accused of fraud and faced charges with the election commission by their rivals from the USDP, the proxy party of the Burmese military regime.

Their cases were heard separately by the tribunal of the election commission in Naypyidaw.

U Kyaw Lwin, a candidate from the people's parliament, and U Ohn Tin, a candidate from the state parliament, from the RNDP in Kyaukpru Township, were found not guilty of fraud in their cases on 15 June.

U Hla Maung Thein, an elected candidate for the state parliament from Rathidaung Township, U Phe Than from the people's parliament, U Aung Win and U Maung Lone from the state parliament in Mraybon Township were all found not guilty on 24 June as well.

However, the tribunal of the EC has handed down guilty verdicts to the remaining three RNDP MPs who were elected from Pautktaw Township in its judgement on 6 July.

Rumors are spreading among political circles and local voters in Arakan State that the election commission tribunal received 50 million kyat from the USDP candidates to decide against the RNDP defendants.

The RNDP won the won a majority of the seats fielded in Arakan State in the last November election, but the USDP, the military proxy party, controls the regional state government after appointing its candidates as chief minister and ministers for most of the state ministries.

Literature and Culture

2011-07-11T20:50:00.000-07:00

Arakan (Rakhine) State was an independent sovereign state for over 5,000 years (from BC 3325 to AD 1784) with four dynastic eras: Dhanyawaddy, Vesali, Laymro and Mrauk-U. Throughout these four eras, Arakan developed a wealth of literature and culture.

The evolution of Arakanese (Rakhaing) literature was greatly influenced by Indian literature, probably due to the area’s geographical isolation from the Burmese mainland by the Arakan Roma mountain ranges. Traces of Indian influence remain in many aspects of Arakanese culture, including its literature, art, music, cuisine, and so on.

One of the earliest examples of Arakanese literature is the 'Saccaka paribajaka Jina' inscription on the underside of the Fat Monk image in Pan Zee Mroung in Mrauk- U Township. The stone engraving on this Fat Monk image is a Brahmin inscription from the 1st century AD (the Dhanyawaddy period). The Rakha Wanna, or Arakanese alphabet, used in Arakanese literature has evolved from the northern Brahmin languages. It has been influenced by Brahmin and related letter forms throughout the periods of Dhanyawaddy, Vesali, Laymro and Mrauk- U, to the present day.

Sanskrit and Pali literature also influenced Arakanese literature heavily. The standard shapes of Rakha Wanna characters were a mixture of ellipses and right angles in the Vesali period, and then predominantly square in the Laymro period. Although the alphabet from the earlier period of Mrauk-U was very square, the writing of the middle era used many more ellipses, and eventually evolved into a script of mostly circular shapes, like those of Southern India, by the end of Mrauk- U era.

The Anandacandra Inscriptions Pillar, a monolith inscribed with Sanskrit stanzas housed in a grille structure on the left side of the main stairway of the Shitethaung Temple, may be considered the earliest history book in Burma. This Vesali-era pillar was moved to Mrauk-U by King Mun Ba Gree (Munn Bun), the 13th King of the Mrauk- U Dynasty, in 1536. This square pillar rises 3.3 m (9ft 7in) from the ground and is 0.7m (2ft 4in) wide. It is made of fine-grained sandstone, which was widely used at Dhanyawaddy and for the early sculptures of Vesali. Three of its four faces are inscribed.

The eastern face has about one hundred lines of illegible inscriptions, probably containing accounts of earlier dynasties. This script closely resembles that of 6th Century Gupta copper plates of Bengal and, like earlier such pillars, retains some 5th Century characteristics. 5th Century forms are noticed in the vowels and may therefore be palaeographically dated to the end of 5th or beginning of the 6th Century. It was presumably written during the reign of Bhumicandra (Bhuticandra), who ruled between 489 and 520 AD. It is evident that the script had been in use for some time, perhaps as long as a century. The archaeological evidence from this period suggests that it was around this time that the capital was moved from Dhanyawaddy to Vesali.

The western face has 72 lines of text; it is the most legible and significant inscription on the pillar, consisting of 51 verses describing the King's ancestral rulers. Inscriptions like these are rare in Burma; King Anandacandra, who ruled Arakan around 720AD, and is credited with ordering the inscription, is held in very high regard by Arakanese and foreign historians alike. Dr E.H. Jonston (Professor of Oriental Studies of Balliol College, Oxford University, England) and Dr D.C. Sircar (former Superintendent of Archaeological Department of India) have dated the inscription to the beginning of the 8th Century AD. Dr Johnston's reading reveals a list of kings which he believed to have lived from the Candra Dynasty onwards.

The Holy Pitakai in Mrauk-U contains the Tipitaka (three baskets), a library of Buddhist scriptures known as the Pali Canon. These scriptures were used by the monks and novices of Taung-nyo Taik monastery during the Mrauk- U period. The Holy Pitakai was originally donated by the son of Mun Ba Gree, Mum Fhaloung (1571-1593) who is also known as Naradipadi Uritaw Thirithu Shah.

In addition to the stone inscriptions found in different parts of Arakan, there are several literary genres including poetry, annals, narratives and eulogies, which reveal much about the evolution of Arakanese literature. Inscriptions found on silver and gold coins in the eras of Vesali and Mrauk-U offer further clues to the development of Arakanese literature and culture.

In reference to culture, Arakanese cultural and traditional life and indeed the civilization of Arakan have always been closely linked to Buddhist thought and traditions. Further, many aspects of Aryan culture have been absorbed into Arakanese society. The traditional lifestyle and culture of Arakan can be studied in more detail at temples such as Shitethaung Temple, Koethaung Temple, Htukkant Thein Shrine, Anndaw Thein Shrine, and pagodas in Laungbwannbrauk, Maha Bodi Shwegu, Sakya Manaung, Zina Manaung, Lawka Manaung, the Pitaka Library, Konawang, Prasoegri Phara and the Museums of Mrauk U and Site-tway.

The people of Arakan have historically practiced Theravada Buddhism; almost 100% of the Arakanese (Rakhaing) are Buddhists and their religion is central to their national identity and culture. The Arakanese have followed the teachings of Buddhism since Gautama Buddha visited Arakan during the reign of King Chandra Surira in the 6th Century BC.

King Sri Chandra, one of the famous Kings of Vesali, is famed for having convened the fourth Arakanese council for the three Pitakas (Tipitaka). This assembly was composed of the 1,000 Rahats including 500 Rahats from Sri Lanka; throughout its history, Arakanese Buddhism has had extremely close links with Sri Lanka, as well as India. In 1784, the Burmese King Maung Wine (Bodawpaya) invaded Arakan and set all of the religious buildings on fire, including over 30 major and 3700 minor monasteries in Mrauk-U, the last capital of Arakan.

Ancient Arakan’s education system consisted not only of Monastic education but also the traditional style, which involved knowledge being passed down through an apprentice system. All of the major Buddhist Monasteries acted as Universities in the Arakanese Kingdoms, and taught skills for many different professions; the curriculum was known as the eighteen arts and sciences. For other professions, such as priests, scholars, religious teachers, Kings, warriors, chieftains, landowners, land labourers and craftsmen, the requisite skills were taught by senior professionals to apprentices in accordance with the caste system.

The health system in ancient Arakan totally depended on traditional physicians, who mastered the skills for medical treatment. They treated illnesses and diseases using one of the four grand elements: earth, water, fire and air. There were other physicians, who, more traditionally, would not prescribe medicine but cure diseases by suggesting dietary changes.

In the past, various traditional sports were contested in Arakan, such as Arakanese wrestling or “Kyun”, elephant racing, archery, sword or spear competitions, and boat races. The purpose of these competitions was to produce skilled warriors for the Kingdom’s Royal Army. Kyun wrestling and boat racing have remained popular among the public of Arakan to this day, although the other sports have not been practiced since before British colonial rule and the successive Burmese military regimes.

The culture of the Vesali era was highly developed, especially in the following areas: the minting and circulation of coins for currency, literature, art and music, clothing, architecture, masonry, and shipbuilding for international trade. Military power was increased during this era to protect both the nation and national culture.

During the second Mrauk-U era, developments were made in the following areas: military, politics, administration, literature, science, chemistry, medicine, education, and industrial production, especially bronze. Religious developments included the building of Htukkant Thein Shrine, Shitethaung Temple (80,000 Buddha images), Koethaung Temple (90,000 Buddha images), and U Ritetaung Pagoda, all of which are Arakanese cultural landmarks.

One of the most famed cultural and artistic works of Arakan is the Maha Muni Buddha Image that is now housed in Mandalay in central Burma. This Buddha statue was taken from Arakan in 1784 by King Bodawpaya as a war trophy. It is 4 metres high, weighs 6.5 tons, and is made of bronze. Archaeologists believe the image was probably cast during the reign of King Chandra Surya, who ascended the throne in AD 146.

Much of Arakan’s literature and many of its cultural and architectural works, including Buddhist monasteries and pagodas, historical palm leaves (the books of the time) and the Royal Palace of Mrauk-U were stolen or destroyed after Arakan was invaded by the Burmans in 1784.

www.aasyc.org

What Men Have to Do

2011-07-06T21:07:00.001-07:00

Jeremy Adam Smith is the author of "The Daddy Shift," co-editor of the forthcoming anthology "Rad Dad: Dispatches from the Frontiers of Fatherhood" and a founder of the blog Daddy Dialectic.

Greater gender equality in school and on the job has led to greater equality in housework and childrearing. Today in America, fathers now spend more time with their children and on housework than at any time since researchers started collecting comparable data. I call it “the daddy shift” — the gradual movement away from a definition of fatherhood as pure breadwinning to one that encompasses a capacity of caregiving.

Fathers need to encourage each other to take advantage of leave policies and participate in family life.

Rising inequality and economic instability has meant that families can’t afford specialists anymore. And so they’re moving from a family model that stresses efficiency to one that tries to build resilience in the face of economic shocks. In the ideal resilient family, both women and men are capable of working for pay and working at home.

But families often fall short of this ideal, partially because of lingering structural and interpersonal sexism, and partially because men lack support for their new caregiving roles at both home and work. Studies consistently show that 80 percent to 90 percent of mothers still expect fathers to serve as primary breadwinners (and very few will consider supporting a stay-at-home dad). At work, only 7 percent of American men have access to paid parental leave, among other structural limitations.

How can the daddy shift continue? The to-do list is long. It includes an education campaign to help men of all social classes understand what workplace and public policies can help them be the fathers they want to be — and legal campaigns that will defend their jobs against backward attitudes at work. Men whose mindsets are still shaped by the sole-breadwinner ideal need explicit permission and encouragement from both their female partners and their bosses to take advantage of leave policies and participate in family life.

We also need to shift the language we use to discuss work-family issues in a more inclusive direction, so that it includes fathers as well as mothers. That language should stress resilience and meaning to men instead of the language of equality that has mobilized women. In the end, it's up to guys to tell the stories of our lives and speak up for what we want. No one will do it for us.

http://www.blogger.com/publish-confirmation.g?blogID=1733617819154096639&postID=7348029986607000032×tamp=1310011676971&javascriptEnabled=true

What Women Have to Do

2011-07-06T21:06:00.001-07:00

Sandrine Devillard is a Paris-based director at McKinsey and Company. She co-wrote "Women Matter," which assessed women’s role in the economic performance of corporations.

Numerous studies have demonstrated the positive impact on company performance of diversity in top management positions, and yet throughout the world, female participation in the boardroom and in the executive suite is very limited.

Women have trouble identifying with success, and need to promote themselves more assertively.

The problem is that persistent barriers prevent women from staying in the work force and achieving management positions. The main issue is that women remain at the center of family life, with all the attendant constraints (maternity, child care, organizing family life, care of the elderly). The impact of the constraints may vary from one country to another, depending on the support offered (services or tax policies to encourage women’s participation in the labor force), but on average European women continue to devote twice as much time as men to domestic tasks.

This "double burden" of work and family responsibility weigh heavily on women and is not always compatible with the performance model of "anytime, anywhere," or the constant availability and geographical mobility that corporations demand. The linear career path is also difficult for women because of maternity leave.

Barriers also exist within women themselves. Studies show that women need to be more comfortable promoting themselves and to be assertive about their performance, abilities and ambitions.

Our research at McKinsey highlights the difficulty women have in identifying with success, an attitude that appears to hamper their professional development. The absence of female role models is compounded by a heightened perception of the difficulty of achieving success in today’s business environment. "Opting out” -- a voluntary decision to discontinue one’s career -- is both the result of the barriers identified and an additional cause of the shortfall of women among corporate executives.

So how can we change this? Visible commitment by top executives and programs to develop women as leaders stands at the heart of any attempt at effective gender diversity. Of course, human resource policies and services are also critical to women's development.

But ultimately the means to removing the glass ceiling is in the hands of women themselves. Women will build their own way to the top mainly based on the supportive learning, coaching or mentoring initiatives that companies put in place. Achieving greater diversity is mostly about building a workplace where diverse talent can develop and grow without encountering specific barriers.

http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/07/05/how-can-we-get-men-to-do-more-at-home/gender-diversity-in-the-workplace-is-in-the-hands-of-women

Change Rituals and Behavior

2011-07-06T21:05:00.000-07:00

Ute Frevert is the director of the Max Planck Institute for Human Development in Berlin and a professor of history at the Free University of Berlin.

The current state of gender inequalities in Western societies has an interesting story to tell about the longevity of mentalities. Mentalities generally change much more slowly than legal codifications and institutional policies.

Through our behavior as parents, employers and leaders, we can set a different example and serve as role models for younger generations.

People hold on to belief systems, rituals and modes of behavior far longer than real-life circumstances urge and demand them to. This has to do with how these belief systems are passed on from one generation to the next, through mimetic procedures, learning devices and artifacts whose meaning and interpretation are hard to control. Children’s literature, for example, still works with images of family and gender roles that attract feminist criticism. The further you look back in time and include books that you grew up with and want to share with your children, the more difficult it is to reconcile their implicit and explicit messages with our ideas of gender equality.

So there are strong factors out there that lead present-day women to feel responsible for the social and emotional set-up of the family. This comes in handy for men, who gladly contribute material resources but cut down on time and emotional work that they prefer to invest into their professional careers.

What can be done to change this mentality, which seems to be the main force driving women to drop out of the employment sector or reduce their commitment to a degree that hinders them to from being recruited in high-profile positions? We cannot, of course, “sanitize” the artifacts and media transporting traditional gender roles. But we can make sure, through our own behavior as parents, employers and leaders to set a different example and serve as role models for the younger generation. This is relevant for women as much as men. I personally know many more women than men who combine active parenthood with professional ambitions. Men’s education is thus badly needed. If they resist change, our striving is bound to fail.

http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/07/05/how-can-we-get-men-to-do-more-at-home/how-to-change-the-status-quo-of-gender-roles

Don't Work if You Don't Have To

2011-07-06T21:03:00.000-07:00

Neil Gilbert is the Chernin Professor of Social Welfare at the University of California, Berkeley. He is the author of "Capitalism and the Welfare State" and, most recently, "A Mother's Work: How Feminism, the Market and Policy Shape Family Life."

Since the mid-1960s, men in the United States have taken on an increasing share of household and child care responsibilities. Their level of participation in these activities more than doubled between 1965 and 1999, at which point it leveled off.

The elite few, who essentially promote the commercialization of child-rearing and idealize everyone working full-time, have options that others don't.

Despite this increase, women continue to assume the brunt of these domestic responsibilities -- about 40 percent more of the unpaid work than men. Whether complete equality in the division of labor can or should be achieved in these realms is an open question. It is a question, however, that masks a much more serious issue for parents and children, particularly those in the middle and working classes.

During the first three to five years of life, the work of raising children is extremely labor intensive, a 24/7 job with no time off for vacations. No matter how it is split, the child-rearing and household production activities of a two-earner family with two children under 5 is an immensely time-consuming enterprise. Even if the children are placed in the care of others from 8:30 a.m. to 5:30 p.m., a considerable amount of work -- cooking, feeding, dressing, driving, cleaning, buying and washing clothes, visiting doctors -- remains to be done by parents every day. And that’s before finding the so-called quality time to play, chatter and cuddle

The expectation that both parents work full-time during the early years of child-rearing is widely held by most of the people who regularly write, think and talk about this issue. These are journalists, professors and pundits who write, think and talk for a living. None of them has a real 9-to-5 job, with an hour for lunch. They think “doing lunch” is work. For these elite few, work is varied, interesting, with flexible hours and rewarding enough to pay for full-time nannies. For most others, after a few years on the job, paid employment is cramped and repetitious. With the increasing life-span and rising age of retirement, devoting an extra five years to caring for preschool children would still leave a stay-at-home parent, male or female, 30 to 40 years to test the joys of paid employment.

The elite have framed a discourse that promotes the commercialization of child-rearing and idealizes everyone working full-time in the market, under the banner of equality in the division of family labor. In the first three to five years of child-rearing, even if a two-earner family achieved complete equality on the domestic front it would leave both members with the equivalent of 1.5 jobs, while their children were effectively being socialized by strangers during the most critical developmental stage of life. Is this the ideal toward which modern family-life should be striving?

http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/07/05/how-can-we-get-men-to-do-more-at-home/dont-work-if-you-dont-have-to

NGOs Help Farmers with Paddy Seeds in Cyclone-Affected Areas

2011-06-28T02:26:00.000-07:00

By Maung Ramar
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Kayuk Pru: NGOs have been distributing funds to farmers in Giri-affected areas in western Burma's Arakan State, particularly for purchase of seeds for paddy cultivation.

giri

A farmer from Kyaukpru Township said the NGOs, including Save the Children and some Christian organizations, are helping the farmers with funds for buying paddy seeds for their cultivation based on the size of the farmland in their area.

"The NGOs, including Save the Children and some Christian organizations are providing us with funds that range from 30,000 to 60,000 Kyat, depending on the size of farmland we possess," said the farmer.

He said the financial help from the NGOs, which do not need to be paid back, have come as an impetus for the recovery of the farmers, who have nothing left for their livelihoods after being hit by the cyclone last year.

He added that there the government's agricultural banks are loaning farmers up to 60,000 Kyat, but the loans are only available to those who have close relationships with the bank officials or local authorities, and have to be paid back after the harvest season.

The NGOs have already provided financial aid to farmers in the villages of Goonshun, Ohndaw, Muntattaung, Kamtee, Latekhamaw, Kalabar, Saikhrun, Uchay, Nhanphaytaung, and Munprun in Kyaukpru Township.

According to the farmers, Save the Children has also donated necessary funds for rebuilding the dams that were destroyed during the cyclone in Mraybon and Kyaukpru Townships.

The Arakan League for Democracy, the leading Arakanese political party from the 1990 election in Burma, has also been providing financial aid for the expense of paddy cultivation to farmers in the area.

narinjara

Arakan State Parliament to Hold Emergency Session on 30 June

2011-06-28T02:22:00.000-07:00

Sittwe: The Arakan State parliament will convene an emergency session on 30 June, but no specific information about why the session was called has been revealed, a parliamentary source said.

Rkhine-state-parliament

The parliamentary body of Arakan State has sent invitation letters to all legislators in the state to join the session on 30 June.

U Aung Mra Kyaw, a state legislator, confirmed that he received the invitation letter to join the emergency session.

"The parliament will be resumed at 10:00 am on 30 June, but I do not know why the parliament authority is holding the emergency session. There aren't any details in the letter about it," he said.

The first session of state parliament stopped in April, and this will be first time it has convened since them. There are nearly 50 legislators in the Arakan State parliament, but most are from the government-backed party and the army.

http://www.narinjara.com/details.asp?id=3001

Waste Complaints Go Unanswered at Kyaukpyu

2011-06-28T02:17:00.000-07:00

Construction under way on Maday Island. (PHOTO: Irrawaddy)

Although a complaint by local workers has been sent to the prime minister of Arakan State regarding the disposal of waste from Kyaukpyu deep seaport project and related work sites, no action has yet been taken, according to local residents.

More than 100 workers from South Korea, China, India, Malaysia and the Philippines, as well as domestic company employees, are reportedly living and working in a natural gas refinery project near Gangawdaw pagoda in the town of Kyaukpyu where construction is currently underway.

“Every day, their leftover food, toilet waste and everything else is transported to a creek near Ohndaw and Gonchain villages, which are located not far away from the Gangawdaw pagoda,” a villager from Ohndaw told The Irrawaddy.

He said that the local villagers could no longer stand the smell from the waste, which became worse on rainy days. About 100 villagers from Ohndaw and some local monks signed a petition and sent it to township and district administrators and asked them to take the necessary measures.
The local authorities, however, responded that they were not in a position to do anything or stop the companies, he said.

“The local authorities wouldn't take any responsibility, so we sent our complaint on to Hla Maung, the prime minister of Arakan State, on June 18. He didn't respond nor did he take any action,” he said.

The local residents, however, still have not given up. They said they will send their petition to the union government in Naypyidaw.

“We have received the villagers' letter of complaint and are preparing to discuss the matter with the state government,” said Ba Shin, a Kyaukpyu resident and a member of the Pyithu Hluttaw [Lower House] representing the Rakhine Nationalities Development Party (RNDP). “But I don't think it can take any action against those who throw their waste out without consideration for others. Nevertheless, we have submitted this case to the related parliamentary sessions in Naypyidaw.”

He said companies, their domestic and foreign employees, and the local authorities involved in the Kyaukpyu deep seaport project and its related projects should pay serious attention to avoid any waste which has an impact on the environment and local residents.

He also said that rocks and reefs near Maday island were dynamited to lay gas pipelines to transport gas to China, a move that affected the environment and killed a lot of aquatic animals.

U Ohn, one of Burma's most prominent environmentalists and the vice-chairman of the Forest Resource Environment Development and Conservation Association, told The Irrawaddy that the environment on Maday Island and in the surrounding Kyaukpyu area will be severely affected by construction of the deep-sea port and related projects.

“What has been written in the book with regard to environmental conservation is really great. But there has been no implementation. We still haven't been consulted on anything about the environmental impact of projects in Kyaukpyu,” said U Ohn.

State-run newspapers in Burma reported that the construction of the deep seaport on Maday Island was led by the China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), one of the biggest companies in China. The CNPC began construction on the seaport in October 2010 and is due to finish by 2013, they said.

It is expected to transport 12 billion cubic meters of natural gas and about 400,000 barrels of crude oil to China every year.

Wong Aung, the coordinator of the Shwe Gas Movement, which is made up of individuals and groups who are concerned about the overall impact of the extraction of natural gas in Burma, told The Irrawaddy that in addition to CNPC, other domestic and foreign companies such as Asia World and Daewoo are involved in the project.

He said human rights violations and work exploitation exist in the project's work sites. About 100 workers, who were dissatisfied with their working conditions sent complaints to local authorities, and were subsequently dismissed from their jobs.

According to some local employees, they have to work from 6 am to 6 pm but are only paid 1,500—2,500 kyat [US $1.90—3.00] a day. Daily wages are officially fixed at 5,000 kyat [$6.00], but local authorities and Burmese supervisors exploit their workers, they said.

Two RNDP MPs Gain Victory in Election Fraud Case

2011-06-17T04:06:00.000-07:00

Two RNDP elected representatives gained victory over charges of election fraud filed by USDP candidates when the Union Election Commission in Naypyidaw passed their verdict on Wednesday that they were not guilty of any wrongdoing in the election, said a party source.

Election-RNDP
"The Union Election Commission passed a verdict yesterday that two elected representatives, U Own Tin and U Kyaw Lwin, are not guilty, and the commission rejected the allegations of USDP candidates against them," said U Ba Shin, who is a representative of the people's parliament from the RNDP.

U Own Tin is an Amyotha Hluttaw representative from Kyaukpru Township for the Rakhine National Development Party, while U Kyaw Lwin is an Arakan State Hluttaw representative from the same township. Both were charged, along with seven other RNDP lawmakers on several counts, including slander of the government, that were leveled by USDP candidates after they lost the election.

“The Union Election Commission decided the cases fairly according to the truth. We appreciate the commission for their verdict,” U Ba Shin Said. “The accusations of the USDP candidates were found to be false, and the commission ordered the USDP candidates to pay one million kyat each in compensation to the RNDP representatives,” the representative said.

U Own Tin was charged by U Aung Tin Thein, a rival candidate from the USDP for Amyotha Hluttaw from Kyaukpru Townhip while U Kyaw Lwin was charged by U Than Aye, a rival candidate from the USDP for Arakan State parliament.

The two candidates from the USDP, U Aung Tin Thein and U Than Aye, asked to amend the election results in the union commission. All those amended facts were related to election fraud but were rejected by the tribunal of Union Election Commission.

U Own Tin and U Kyaw Lwin are the first RNDP representatives to face victory out of the nine facing charges by USDP candidates. The cases of the remaining seven representatives are under the trial and the cases will be decided by the tribunal of the election commission within this month.

The RNDP won 34 seats in Arakan State in the election that was held on 7 November, 2010. After the election, nine elected MPs were charged by USDP candidates with several allegations of fraud.

http://www.narinjara.com/details.asp?id=2991

Villagers Hit Hardest by Cyclone Giri Face Starvation

2011-06-17T04:03:00.001-07:00

Mray Bon: Several villagers in the three villages hardest hit by Cyclone Giri in Arakan State have been facing starvation since the beginning of this month after they lost the opportunity to work at sea due to bad weather, according to many reports from the area.

poor woemen
The three fishing villages facing starvation are Pyin Wan, Own Chaung, and Kyaunt Chaung on Kyaunt Thaya Island a few miles west of Mray Bon, the hardest hit township in Arakan State.

A government teacher from Pyin Wan Village said over the phone that many people in those villages have not been able to eat on a daily basis because they had not earned enough to buy rice from the shops. "I think over 100 villagers in three villages are now facing starvation," he said.

The villagers in these three villages are fisherman and have been facing difficulty since the rainy season started.

One villager said, "We all are fishermen in the area, not farmers. Our survival depends on the sea. Since the rainy season started this month, we have not had any work because we can not go to sea for fishing due to bad weather. The weather is very bad this year with many small storms. The sea is always rough with heavy waves this year so we can not go fishing at sea."

"This is a major reason for villagers' starvation in the area," he said.

However, the other factor contributing to the problem of hunger is that relief from NGOs for cyclone victims has stopped.

Ko Khain Lin, a social worker in Mray Bon, said, "There is another reason for the starvation, because there is not any relief from NGOs currently for cyclone-affected people in the area. Even though NGOs provided rice and other goods to cyclone victims over the last few months, NGOs have now stopped relief to the villagers. This is the main reason for the starvation."

According to villager sources, the villagers have not received rice or other relief from any NGOs since March this year, despite facing many problems, including a shortage of rice.

"We lost much of our property in last year's cyclone, including fishing boats and fishing nets. We recovered our work and our lives ourselves. Some NGOs assisted us with rebuilding our lives, but there support is not enough for our need. So we struggle for rebuilding our lives ourselves," the villager said.

Although there are people starving in the cyclone-affected areas of Mray Bon Township, there is no emergency plan by the government so far to help the villagers.

http://www.narinjara.com/details.asp?id=2992

Prayer Campaign Held for Political Prisoners

2011-06-17T03:58:00.001-07:00

Sittwe: An Arakanese underground group called the "Rakha Alin Dan", or the "Rays", conducted a prayer campaign for political prisoners on Thursday in 13 townships of Arakan State, said Ma Pan Thu San, chief of the group.

She said, "We did the prayer campaign for political prisoners at many worship places in 13 townships in Arakan, calling for freedom of all political prisoners immediately. A few people gathered there to pray for political prisoners."

No action was taken by the government authority for the prayer campaign for political prisoners.

"We did not face any problems with the campaign despite holding it in many towns - Rathidaung, Sittwe, Mrauk U, Kyauk Taw, Min Bya, Kyauk Pru, Mray Bon, Maungdaw, Ponna Kyunt, and Ann - the authority did not know of our activities," she added.

A youth from Taungup who participated in the campaign said that about 20 people attended the prayer campaign held in Found Daw Oo Pagoda in Taungup by lighting candles in front of the Buddha image.

About 20 or 30 people in each township in Arakan State attended the prayer campaign to pray for the freedom of political prisoners.

The campaign for political prisoners came about after two political groups - 88 students Group and the All Burma Monk’s Alliance - convened on Wednesday to worship every Sabbath day for political prisoners to be released immediately.

After that, the campaign was conducted by social and political groups yesterday, the day of the full moon of the month of Nan Yon in the Burmese era. The campaign was done on the day in many towns and cities, in both Arakan and other states and divisions.

"Our members who are living in Rangoon also joined some prayer campaigns held in Rangoon. Other people did the prayer campaign in some divisions like Mandalay, Irrawaddy, and Rangoon," she said.

The campaign for political prisoners will reportedly continue every sabbath day until political prisoners are freed from prisons in Burma.

Many people in and outside of the country believe all political prisoners should be freed in Burma if the government wants to achieve democracy.

The main group working for the campaign is an Arakanese social group formed by some women leaders to carry out social affairs in Arakan State. They group recently published a magazine with many anti-dictatorship articles inside Arakan secretly to avoid government censors.

http://www.narinjara.com/details.asp?id=2993

“Obama! Very good! – Buddhist Monk in Sittwe, Myanmar

2011-06-17T03:53:00.000-07:00

“Obama! Very good! – Buddhist Monk in Sittwe, Myanmar

Sittwe, Myanmar (Burma) Sittwe is the capital of Rakhine State in western Myanmar (formerly known as Burma). It’s a very sleepy port city where you see almost no cars. Almost everyone there is on a bike of some kind or a motorcycle.

There isn’t much reason for a foreign tourist to visit Sittwe I’m afraid, unless it’s as a staging area to get to Mrauk U, which is why we were there last March.

Fruit bats, Sittwe, Myanmar (Burma) But we will definitely remember the fruit bats hanging in the trees outside our hotel room. They didn’t bother us at all, and it was interesting watching them snooze in the heat of the day.

Court and Susan, Sittwe, Myanmar (Burma) Sittwe sits on the Bay of Bengal, only a few hundred miles from Bangladesh. Between the sea and the Kaladan River, there is a spit of land called “the point” where there is a nice little park to watch the sun set over the waves. (Above are my sister Susan and her husband, Court.)

Sittwe, Myanmar (Burma) We had about a day to lay over in Sittwe between boat trips, so we wandered about the bustling market. In spite of the economic slow down and general lack of tourism, it seemed like the market was full of goods.

Add caption

There were a couple of museums in town, one of them was the state-run Rakhine State Museum, where they had some really interesting displays of the different people groups and the costumes they wear plus displays of their martial arts, festivals and houses.

Add caption

The funkiest thing we saw though in Sittwe was their Buddhist Museum, which is onthe second floor of a monastery in town. Actually it looked like a former mansion. We stepped out of our shoes and wandered aimlessly until we found the stairway to the museum.

I’m not sure I can fully capture how really odd this place was. Most of the displays looked like jars with gravel in them. The attending monk, with very little English at his command, confirmed that they were the leftover teeth and bone fragments from famous monks and wise men from the past. There were also displays of foreign currency and even a couple of golf trophies.

At the end of our wander through the museum, the monk asked where we were from by taking us to a world map and asking us to point to our home country. When we pointed out the US, he said his only really clear English:

“Obama … very good!”

About Arakan

2011-06-07T20:44:00.000-07:00

What is Arakan? [??????]

The land that is known as Arakan by the foreigners is called ‘Rakhaing-pray’ [??????????] by its own peoples, Rakhaing-thars (Arakanese) [?????????]. The word “Arakan” was a derivation of the ancient word “Arakha-de-sha” [???? ?????] (the land of Arakan) which is found in line forty of Anandachandra inscriptions of Shitethaung pillar.

Rakhapura [?????]

Rakhapura [?????] is the former name of Rakhaing-pray [??????????]. Arakanese people today do not use the term 'Rakhapura' to mention their land. But, every Arakanese love the word “Rakhapura” [?????] as they assume that it is a unique word for only Arakanese in this universe. It can also be found in both classical and modern Arakanese plays, poetry and songs. Both Rakhapura and Rakhaing-pay means the land that is owned and inhabited by the Arakanese.

Rakhaing [??????]

According to the Arakanese chronicles, the word ‘Rakhaing’ [??????] was originated from Rakhapura [?????] and it means the original inhabitants of Rakhapura [?????]. Arakhadesha [?????????] > Rakhasa [?????] > Rakkha [??] > Rakkhaing [??????] > Rakhaing [??????] In Pali [?????] the word ‘Rakhaing’ [??????] is used to honour the people who love their nation, and preserve their national heritage, and their traditional ethics or morality [???].

Area of Arakan

Arakan is situated among India in the North, Burma in the East and People's Republic of Bangladesh in the West. To the south, it extends up to Haigri Islands and is bounded on the southwest by the Bay of Bengal. The area of Arakan was more than 20,000 sq. ml. till the British period. But, Burmese ruler, without the consent of Arakanese people, split up a north western Arakan Hill Tracts area bordering India and a southern most part of Arakan (from Kyauk Chaung River to Cape Negaris) from the Arakan mainland. Due to these partitions, the present day total area of Arakan was reduced to 18, 500 sq. ml and it comprise less than half of historic Arakan territory.

Religion

Buddhism was introduced into Arakan during the lifetime of Buddha himself. According to Arakanese chronicles, Lord Buddha, accompanied by his five hundred disciples, visited the city of Dhannyawadi (Grain blessed) in 554 B.C. King Chandra Suriya (Sun and Moon) and all the people converted to Buddhism and became Buddhists since then. The king requested Lord Buddha to leave the image of Himself to commemorate the event before he left Arakan and Lord Buddha consented it. This was the famous Mahamuni (Great Sage) image, known throughout the Buddhist world and desired by kings who sought to conquer the country in order to carry away this powerful prize. The history of this image is entwined with that of Arakan. After casting the Great Image Mahamuni, Lord Buddha breathed upon it which resembled the exact likeness of the Blessed One.

The tradition of the origin of the Mahamuni image can be interpreted as an allegorical account of the introduction of Buddhism to Arakan. The first evidence we have of Buddhism is in the early sculpture of the Mahamuni shrine at Dhanyawadi.

Arakanese, to show their utmost respect to King Chandra Suriya who had donated Mahamuni Shrine and introduced Buddhism into Arakan, have been using the signs of Sun and Moon as the most sacred symbols throughout the history until today.

These symbols can be found in all ancient coins of Arakan, as well as present-day flag and seal of Rakhaing state under Burma.

http://www.rakhapura.com/about-arakan

Small Statue a Big Victory for Arakanese

2011-06-07T20:42:00.000-07:00

The Arakan ethnic minority in western Burma scored a big moral victory over the new government by successfully preventing national officials from taking an ancient gold Buddha image recently excavated in their region to Naypyidaw.

On May 30, local authorities discovered nearly 40 Buddha statues from an old temple in the ancient city of Mrauk U in Arakan State, one of which turned out to be made of gold and weighing 6.52 kg. A local archaeologist said that the statue dates back to the eighth century A.D.

When government officials prepared to bring the golden statue to Naypyidaw, hundreds of locals came to the monastery where the statue was kept and protested against its transfer. The protests only subsided after the authorities agreed that the statue will not be moved.

Although the incident seemed minor, it reminded the Arakanese people of their loss of sovereignty to the Burmese majority over two centuries ago, when the Burmese king moved their giant Maha Muni Buddha image to his capital in central Burma as a war trophy.

The Maha Muni image is now a major religious landmark in Mandalay.

Following the protests on Saturday, the regional minister for cultural affairs said that the golden statue will be worshiped in the town, and many locals welcomed the news as a rare victory over the national government.

“It is not important whether it is gold or not. This is a win for us.” said a retired school teacher in the town. “This is Arakanese heritage, which we will defend with our life.”

She said that the Burmese authorities often took away local historical artifacts, saying they intended to study the items, but they were never returned.

Arakan people often express resentment of Burman majority rule and Arakan activists have often protested that their people are not benefiting from the billion-dollar oil and natural gas projects along the Arakan coast.

Dr. Aye Maung, the leader of an Arakan opposition party and MP in the national Parliament, said that just as the British returned Burma's royal throne to its former colony after the country's independence, so also the return of the Maha Muni image to Arakan State will be a good token for Burma's national reconciliation process.

Although the return of the Burmese royal throne was seen by some to be a British attempt to appease former Burmese dictator Ne Win, Aye Maung said, “The British did it because they have democracy. But with our country ruled by people with different ideas, it will be a long time before we get back our Maha Muni.”

The Irrawaddy News

Tibetan Monks Beaten, Detained

2011-06-07T19:05:00.000-07:00

Tibetan Monks Beaten, Detained
2011-06-07

They are held for demonstrations against Chinese rule.

AFP

Tibetan monks at a monastery in China's southwestern Kardze Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, March 23, 2008.

Three Tibetan monks in a Tibetan-majority area of China protested against Chinese rule in separate actions this week, drawing severe beatings by police, sources in the region and in exile said.

The protests took place in the Kardze (in Chinese, Ganzi) Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of China’s southwestern Sichuan province, an area known for frequent protests by Tibetans against Beijing's rule.

“On June 6, at around 2:30 pm, two young monks appeared at Do Sengge in Kardze town, a place used by police for their headquarters,” a local Tibetan told RFA, speaking on condition of anonymity and identifying the protesters as Tsewang Tashi and Gyurme Sonam, both around 18 years old.

“They shouted slogans calling for the long life and return to Tibet of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, and calling for freedom for Tibet. They also threw leaflets in the air,” the man said.

Police rushed in and attacked the two with iron rods before detaining them, he said, adding that “local residents saw stains of blood on the pavement from the beating.”

Speaking separately to RFA, another resident of Kardze town confirmed the incident, saying that though she did not witness the event, “I heard from others that two monks had protested downtown.”

‘Gestures of support’

The next day at around noon, another monk staged a solitary protest in downtown Kardze, and was also detained and beaten, sources said.

“At mid-day today, June 7, a monk named Oser Phuntsog suddenly appeared in the middle of town and shouted slogans,” Tenzin Namgyal, a former Tibetan political prisoner now based in India said, citing contacts in the region.

“Since there was an incident in Kardze the day before, armed police forces were present everywhere, and [Oser Phuntsog] was detained, severely beaten, and taken from the area,” he said.

“Many Tibetans who witnessed the incident made gestures of support and showed their displeasure when Oser Phuntsog was beaten and taken away.”

“No information is available about his present condition or whereabouts,” he said.

A Tibetan living in Belgium confirmed the protests had taken place, citing sources in Kardze.

“Three monks protested in Kardze town for two days in a group of two monks on June 6 and one monk on June 7,” the source, named Trechoe, said.

“They are currently detained at a prison in Kardze town near the hospital,” he added.

Attempts to reach Kardze police authorities for comment on Tuesday were unsuccessful.

Reported by RFA’s Tibetan service. Translations by Karma Dorjee. Written in English by Richard Finney.

http://www.rfa.org/english/news/tibet/protest-06072011204542.html

Rakhine: Open-oil Lamp

2011-06-07T07:19:00.000-07:00

oil-lamp

The brass open-oil lamp found in the city of Vesali

The second open-oil lamp can be found in the ancient city of Vesali. It is made of brass. It measures 9 inches high from the plinth to the edge of the statue. It is a female figure and stretching her hands in prallel. The brass open-oil lamp in the form of hemisphere of the gourd, is held with her fingers. The front edge of the open-oil lamp was used to put the loop of the wick. The oil to light the open-oil lamp, was not gasoline, coconut oil and wood oil, but the butter made from the milk.

Why the open-oil lamp was used

Nowadays, lighting offering to Buddha becomes a traditional custom in Rakhine state because Rakhine people made lighting offering to Buddha from time immemorial as they believed that light offering dedicating to the three gems called Buddha, Dhamma and Samgha (or) gods, was superior to any other offierings.
The history of the open-oil lamp

oil-lamp1

The historians believe that Greek and Roman arrived in the southern part of India in order to trade goods bringing the female statues with the oil lamps in the 2nd century AD. Besides, they also believe that the southern Indian cast the oil lamps with their wanted figures modelling the statues the Europen took.

The historians couldn’t give the exact answer whether the Vesali open-oil lamp was southern Indian’s masterpiece or the European’s masterpiece. Besides, it is very difficult to mention that it was cast in Rakhine or it was taken from the merchants come from the southern part of India. However, the words “tm,mem aumif;rIawmf” were inscribed at the plinth of the statue. By observing the alphabets, we can find that such alphabets were used at the beginning of the 10th century AD in Rakhine. Therefore, some of the historians allege that it was cast in Vesali between 900 AD and 950 AD because it was excavated in the ancient Vesali site and its alphabets look like the alphabets look like the alphabets stamped on the coins of king Su La San Dra, the last king of Vesali dynasty.

oil-lampdance

Rakhine oil lamp dance

Rakhine oil lamp dance is one of the traditional performances in Rakhine state. Performing the oil lamp dance is the demonstration of offering light to lord Buddha. The dancers have to dance together with striking Rakhine drums, playing the flute and singing the soft song called Tharchin. There are evidences that Rakhine musical instruments and Rakhine dances have developed with Vesali high civilization. We can prove that offering light to Lord Buddha became popular in Vesali period because the open-oil lamps from Vesali period, can be found in Rakhine state. Therefore, I believe that the oil lamp dance would relate to the open-oil lamps in Vesali period.

Reference
1. Rakhine Touristy Stupas, 2008 by Htay Win

http://tourism.goldenlandpages.com/articles/256-rakhine-open-oil-lamp.html

Full text of "Vaishali and the Indianization of Arakan" AND THE INDIANIZATION OF ARAKAN

2011-06-07T07:09:00.001-07:00

AND THE INDIANIZATION OF ARAKAN

Published by

SB. Nangia

A.P.H. Publishing Corporation

4435-36/7, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj

New Delhi 110002

Ph.: 2327 4050

Email: aphbooks@vsnl.net

ISBN: 978-81-313-0405-1

2008

Cover: A collage depicting Shiva as Bhikshatanamurti (deity of ascetics), flanked by
DvarapaJa(s), possibly 5* or 6 ,h century CE.

Printed at
Balaji Offset

Navin Shahdara, Delhi-32

. liUhntuilihlHQ

Con/enh

Acknowledgements oil

Intr od uction ix

1. Background history 1

2. "Buddha's pretended peregrinations" in Arakan - 19

3. The Inscriptions of the Dhanyavati and Vaishali periods 28

4. The Ananda Chandra Inscription 39

5. The dynasties mentioned in the Inscription 48

6. The Court at Vaishali 58

7. Thp Chandra rains 64

8. The City of Vaishali 76

9. Religious beliefs 93

10. Vaishali today 100
11 .The Museum at Mrauk U 109

12. Thp Mahamnni Shrinp and Mnspnm 122

13. Thp Buddhist Council Hill 137

Addendum 149

Bibliography 154

■

UicJznowledqemenis

QVCty deepest gratitude must go to the late Professor E. H. Johnston of
c/ltBalliol College, Oxford, who translated the Sanskrit text of the Ananda
Chandra Inscription, but regrettably did not live to see it published. Research
on ancient Arakan suffered a terrible blow by his untimely death in 1942.

I would like to put on record my grateful thanks to the long-suffering
Colleen Beresford (nee Rustom) and Terence Blackburn for reading the manu-
script, and for their innumerable and critical suggestions, in particular their
prudent advice regarding my forthright views on the neglect of the historic
sites, and the offhand attitude of the people, clergy and the authorities. Colleen
has not only allowed me to quote from her scholarly article "Some Coins of
Arakan", but has also provided me with a rare copy of one of San Tha
Aung's books on Ananda Chandra, together with some important news
cuttings and photographs vital to my work, and for which I am obliged.

The incredibly patient Terence Blackburn has kindly spent long hours
trawling the Internet for information relevant to the present work.

To U Sein Maung U, sometime Conservator of the Department of Archae-
ology, Yangon, for his unfailing help in countless ways, especially in obtaining
crucial information on the excavations at Vaishali which would have been
well beyond my reach.

To U Khin Aung, (Emperor Travels and Tours, Yangon. www.
emperortravelsntours.com), another accommodating friend and incomparable
tour organiser, for arranging my trips to this extraordinary region in 2002
and 2005, and for bravely accompanying me on many a bone-shattering car
ride, and hazardous climbs to jungle-clad hill tops in search of elusive ruins;
I was told later by the driver that these remote locations were particularly
attractive to snakes!

To Dr Pamela Gutman and Dr Michael Mitchiner whose important con-
tributions on the history, religion and culture of this region has been invaluable.
Their works have also helped to clear many an unanswered question on the
period. At this moment in time, they appear to be the only recognized au-
thorities on ancient Arakan.

t T

VII

■

il ItlJMItHitliUlO

VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

The obliging staff at the Mrauk U and the Mahamuni Museums also have
my deep gratitude. Despite little financial backup from the relevant authori-
ties, these dedicated souls are undertaking a tremendous amount of work,
much of it in their own free time.

Grateful thanks to Daw Saw Saw Sarpay for some of the illustrations
which appeared in San Tha Aung's The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan.

Any interpretations, forthright or cynical opinions, and errors are, of course,
mine alone.

The drawings and photographs, unless otherwise stated, are by the au-
thor, as are the comments in square brackets.

Noel Francis Singer
2008

vin

LlitmttUhnOJiVdilliG

SJniroduciion

CThis account originally appeared as an article "Sculptures from Vaishali,
O Arakan", in Arts of Asia, July-August 2007, vol. 38, no. 4.

The project initially began in 1999 and by 2006, reams of information had
been gathered, threatening to turn the article into a book. As space in any
magazine is at a premium, this meant that much of the data had to be
grudgingly jettisoned and the text ruthlessly edited.

Nevertheless, I was determined to retrieve the valuable data and reweave
the scattered strands into a book as I felt it was too significant to waste.
Many of the photographs not included in the article were also too valuable
to be consigned to oblivion.

Obviously, since the article was published, 1 have received more pertinent
information which necessitated several changes in the present text.

My interest in ancient Arakan had been simmering since the late 1950s,
when I lived in Myanmar, but was unable to visit the 'legendary' sites of
Mahamuni and Vaishali. In those days, it involved an unpleasant sea voyage,
and once there, transport was practically non existent. Many of the locations,
too, were also in the hands of rebel groups and extremely dangerous. A
virulent form of malaria was rampant — and still is — so intending travellers
beware. Medication, insect repellent and a mosquito net are a must. One
cannot be too careful about the food either, even in the best hotels.

Over forty years later, and now living in the United Kingdom, I finally
achieved my wish. Disappointingly, during each of my two visits, I came
away with almost all my long-held illusions shattered, saddened at the ter-
rible neglect, and the vandalism being perpetrated on ancient religious artefacts
by ignorant and misguided men, in particular the Buddhist clergy. There was
also extreme poverty in the outlying areas. The total lack of interest from the
locals was depressing. Then again, one cannot blame these simple rural folk.

IX

■ liUhlli) lilfli'tUD

VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

as finding the means to fill hungry bellies is far more important than expend-
ing energy on the preservation of mouldy old ruins and ancient artefacts.
During my travels in the countryside, it was most distressing to see such
abject poverty.

This account of Vaishali does not pretend to be a scholarly work, and
despite my lack of academic qualifications, I have tried to tell what is to me
a fascinating story which was probably replicated in various parts of ancient
Southeast Asia which came under the influence of the Hindu colonists.

The early history of Arakan from 200 to the 900 CE is far from complete
and still shrouded in what appears to be an impenetrable haze. Not only
have insufficient archaeological investigations been undertaken, it has also
been iveighed down and sabotaged by inaccurate information by native chroni-
clers of a later age.

Some foreign writers, too, have either slavishly repeated these fantasies,
presented their own interpretations, refuted the findings of others, or else,
ignored this early period altogether. For example, ancient Arakan of the
Chandras was omitted by George Coedes in his celebrated The Indianized
States of Southeast Asia.

A number of readers may find it surprising that I have not given due
weight to indigenous accounts of a later date quoted in this work. This is a
deliberate omission on my part owing to their unreliability, permeated as they
are with borrowed historical episodes and myths from Buddhist and Hindu
India. Although these native sources are claimed to be 'ancient', they prob-
ably date from a time after the 14 th century. Above all, they had a tendency
to fabricate, obsessed with a need to present a realm infused with Buddhist
piety of the Theravada School when in fact it was a Mahayana version,
together with Brahmanism, which predominated.

As things stand, an immense amount of research and scientific excava-
tion, unhampered by religious bigotry and political propaganda urgently needs
to be accomplished.

One occasionally hears of this or that foreign institution planning excava-
tions and conservation, but nothing constructive appears to have materialized
in Arakan. Judging by the articles in the Myanmar Historical Commission
Journal, attention seems to be focused on Myanmar proper.

This present work is based on the unique lithic inscription of circa 729
commissioned by Ananda Chandra, ruler of Vaishali, together with other
epigraphic evidence and iconographic. At this point in time, these are

fliinu

VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

the only contemporary historical materials available for this early period.
One can but hope that before long a fuller picture will emerge when other
relevant inscriptions have been excavated.

1 ItUmirijitliHlO

Gnap/er Q

er \jne

Background history*

CTTie elongated coastal strip of Arakan (Rakhaing) is situated on the western
kJ part of Burma (Myanmar) proper and extends for almost 360 miles. At its
widest it is roughly 100 miles, while at its narrowest it is only about 25 miles.
On the west is the Bay of Bengal, the region now called Bangladesh is to the
north, and on the east are the high Yoma mountains. Man tended to congre-
gate in the fertile river valleys.

What may conceivably be the earliest representation of this ancient land
can be seen in a map based on the findings of the Greek scholar Erathosthenes
(circa 276-194 BCE), the Chief Librarian of the Great Library at Alexandria.
In it, Hindoi or Indoi (India) and Taprobane (Sri Lanka) are indicated. In-
cluded are the Ganga (Bhagerathi) River and its Delta, together with part of
the curving coastal strip of Arakan. The Yoma range which separate this
region from the country now called Myanmar, is depicted as well. Unfortu-
nately, Arakan is represented as a blank space with no identifiable habitation
sites.

A chart by Strabo (c. 63/64 BCE-24 CE) which appears to have been
based on the above, is almost identical for this region. However, in a later
map derived from those of Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy: flourished 127-145
CE, another inhabitant of Alexandria), the coastline of Arakan has been
updated considerably, and the mountain barrier illustrated in detail. Of par-
ticular interest is the inclusion of the premier port city of Sada together with
another, also on the coast, called Berabonna. The river "Sados Flu" [thought
to be the present Kaladan) is shown.

Another map, also based on Ptolemy's researches and published in 1695,
identified the Yoma mountain chain as the "Meandrus Mons". In this

* All dales not designated BCE are of the Christian Era. Comments in square brackets are by the author

■ liiJKHi) lilfli'tUD

VA1SHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

version, only two cities are named, Sada on the coast, and Triglyphon, situ-
ated further inland and to the north.

An additional chart entitled "Geographiae Antiquae" and dated 1818,
depicted Sada and Berabonna, together with Triglyphon which had now
been relocated to the coast; several versions based on Ptolemy are known to
exist.

In those remote days, it is possible that it was in Bharatavarsha ("The
Realm of the Sons of Bharata", a fabled Indian ruler) that the earliest name
by which Arakan was known was first recorded, and where it achieved
notoriety as "Kala Mukha" (Land of the) Black Faces.'

The Mahaniddesa (circa 200 CE) noted that the Ramayana (The Adventures
of Rama: circa 500 BCE) and the Mahabharata (The Great (battle of the]
Bharatas: circa 400 BCE) identified it by that appellation, and described its
denizens as cannibals, presumably negritos. :

Not surprisingly, the Hindus called them rakshasa (demons) as they be-
lieved them to be the offspring of men and rakshasis (shape-changing female
demons) who through their magical powers could metamorphose themselves
into delectable maidens.- 1

The legend of the rakshasa filtered down the centuries, for the present-day
Rakhaing whose presence was first noted in the region in about the 10 ,h
century CE 4 knew their land as Yetkhapura (Rakshasa pura) or Kingdom and
City of the Demons; although it is unclear where this city-state was situated
or during which period it flourished.

Gerini was sceptical of the derivation of Yetkhapura from the word
"rakshasa", he felt that although Ptolemy in his Geographike Hyphegesis (Guide
to Geography) had populated the littoral .around the Gulf of Martaban with
cannibal tribes, he had not mentioned their existence in Arakan.

"The term Rakhaing can therefore be scarcely connected with the tradition of the
Raksasas occupying at one time the land, and any such pretended connection put
forward is undoubtedly the modern invention of Buddhist monks, anxious to find
some explanation for the name of the country.

Sir Arthur Phayre says that the latter was designated as Rakkha-pura by the
Buddhist missionaries from India; but I should like to hear how far back in antiquity
this name can be traced. It appears in the Mahavamsa [of Sri LankaJ under the form
Rakkhanga at so late a date as A.D. 1592; and in the Ain-i-Akbari at about the same
period under the form Arkung." 5

Uftnfi

BACKGROUND HISTORY

Luce, quoting Ptolemy [who in turn was citing Pomponius Mela (circa 43
CE) ] on the location of ancient Arakan, said:

"Descending the coast south-eastwards from the mouth of the Ganges, he names first
the Airrhadoi (with the port ofBarakoura) [this was presumably in the Chittagong
region]; then the country of Argyre ["Silver Land" i.e. ArakanJ with [the towns
of] Sambra, Sada, Berabonna and Temala [which Gereni believed was Cape
NegraisJ; then a Cape; then the cannibals ofBesynga (thought to be in the region
of the mouth of the Irrawaddy River] in the Sarabak Gulf [most likely the Gulf
of Martaban]."'

These areas were allegedly inhabited by other savage tribes, such as the
Beseidai or Tiladai who lived between India and China, therefore somewhere
in present day Myanmar. However, Luce, when quoting Ptolemy, offered
conflicting descriptions. While on one occasion he defined the people as "big"
of stature and "broad and hairy and broad-faced, white-skinned", further on
they are described as "stunted. 7 The Periplus had originally depicted them as
"pygmies".

Nevertheless, according to Luce "Both Chinese and Greek sources agree in
placing, at the beginning of our era, undersized and white-skinned peoples in
Burma, and the existence of early trade-routes between China and India."*

How reliable is the anecdote concerning the cannibals?

Regarding these man-eating savages, was Ptolemy simply repeating the scare
stories of the geographers before him, and the sensational traveller's tales
which were liable to circulate in ports of the world? After all, it is a well
known fact that humans have a tendency to fabricate, either from sheer
ignorance or pure malice.

Revealingly, a location map in Moore's recent work pinpoints numerous
fortified habitation sites from possibly before 100 CE in the very areas suppos-
edly being terrorized by Ptolemy's cannibals. 9

The cold archaeological and scientific facts are these.

Cave paintings and stone implements said to be over 5,000 years old have
been discovered in the Badalin ("Shining-as-Mercury") Caves in the Shan
States. Older still are the mysterious hunter-gatherers of a prehistoric period
called "Anyathian", from the relatively modern Myanmar word ah-nyar-tha,
meaning a male from the upper part of the country.

iunutUhniiMflitnh

VAISHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

Recent excavations have uncovered hitherto unknown finds from loca-
tions which have been identified as the Neolithic, 'Bronze Age' and the 'Iron
Age'. The Nyaungyan burial site, in particular, has revealed what appear to
be unique 'mother goddess' figures crafted out of thin sheets of bronze; the
identification of these symbols is still ongoing. Grave goods include decorative
ornaments for coffins, polished stone implements, large perforated stone discs
designed for the wrists and chest, glass rings, pottery and bronze artefacts. 10
Almost similar examples from these periods have also been reported in Thai-
land."

It is doubtful if cannibalism was practiced amongst these people who
were certainly not wild savages.

Carbon-dated evidence has revealed that by circa 200 BCE, the Pyu (Piao
or Tircul), possibly one of the earliest civilized ethnic groups, were already
established within their small city-states in central Myanmar.

One must presume that the civilized and the uncivilized existed within
their own territories, with raids and counter raids being undertaken as the
centuries passed. It would appear that the more primitive tribes were finally
pushed further back into the wilderness, for the Pyu and the Mon, each in
their own kingdoms, soon came to dominate the land.

But that is another story.

The first wave of Hindu colonists

To return to what was occurring at the time in ancient Arakan.

In India of the 1" century CE, fuelled by their need for commerce, gold
and silver, the initial wave of Hindu colonists undertaking their samudra yatra
(sea voyages) across the Purva Samudra (Bay of Bengal) began in earnest. 12

These extraordinarily courageous travellers, composed of merchants, ad-
venturers, artisans, Brahmana, members of the ruling elite and, one must
assume, some of their fearless women folk, braved the terrifying and cramped
conditions at sea to seek out strange new worlds such as the fabled
Survanabhumi and Suvarnadvipa, which reputedly contained unimaginable
wealth. Once at their destination, the pioneers founded settlements and over-
came the hostility of the local inhabitants. Some of their elite married into the
families of loc.il tribal chiefs and in time, by their superior knowledge and
skills, came to rule over them.

I litJIOMUiljlilHQ

BACKGROUND HISTORY

It was surprising to learn that even before that early date, many of the
coastal areas and shipping lanes of the Indian Ocean and the Straits of Malacca
were infested by pirates who either killed all on board or sold them into
slavery. This meant that for the prudent ship owners and merchants, precau-
tionary measures had to be taken, and a contingent of archers and spearmen
hired to accompany these voyages. 13

By the 3' d century, the coastal regions of Kala Mukha had been settled,
with the colonists dominating and coexisting warily with the aboriginal tribes.

The Lords of the Solar and Lunar dynasties from far off Bharatavarsha
had indeed arrived.

In the major habitation sites, Sanskrit was the written language for the
ruling classes, and religious beliefs were those current at the time on the
subcontinent.

Dr. Emil Forchhammer, a Swiss Professor of Pali at Rangoon College, and
Superintendent of the newly founded Archaeological Survey [1881] described
this fertile region [which was, and is still infested with the deadly malaria
mosquito {Culicidae)].

"The earliest datvn of the history of Arakan reveals the base of the hills, which divide
the lower course of the Kaladan and Lemro rivers, inhabited by sojourners from India,
governed by chiefs who claim relationship with the rulers of Kapilavastu. Their
subjects are divided into the four castes of the older Hindu communities; the kings
and priests study the three Vedas; the rivers, hills, and cities bear names of Aryan
origin; and the titles assumed by the king and queen regent suggest connection with
the Solar and Lunar dynasties of India/' 1 *

Argyre, the Silver Land

Ptolemy, quoting Pomponius Mela, had identified this part of Eastern India
as Argyre (Silver Land) as he had been told that it contained numerous silver
mines. Its capital was Sada. But since this metal is not found in the region,
later scholars found his description perplexing, neither could the city of Sada
be identified.

Majumdar, too, could not agree with this location for Argyre and felt that
"we might look upon the island of Java as corresponding to Argyre, and
there are several facts which speak in favour of this supposition." 15

Fortunately, in 1978 the mystery was partly explained by Mitchmer, who
said that the reason it bore the epithet Silver Country was that its govern-

i'lllD

VAISHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ABAKAN

ment acted as a mediator for the export of bullion which originated in Nanzhao
(Yunnan) and an area of Myanmar which is now believed to be located in the
present Bawzaing area of the Shan States 16 [the Bawdwin mines are another
location]. This immense stretch of country in the Shan States was variously
under the control of the Pyu kingdoms of Vishnupura (City of Vishnu), Hanlin,
and the Varman and Vikrama dynasties of Sri Kshetra, named after the holy
city of Puri in Kalinga, and sacred to Vaishnavites-

According to Mitchiner, the silver was taken down the Temalos (Irrawaddy
River) to Temala, thought to be near present-day Syriam (Thanlyin), across
the river from Rangoon (Yangon); it was later to become part of the Mon
kingdom of Ramannadesa.

From Temala, the bullion from Nanzhao was shipped to agents in the
eastern kingdoms and to Sada in the Silver Land from where it was dis-
patched to India and beyond. This precious metal attracted the attention of
the Romans, for it is known that sometime during the 2 nd century CE, a small
expedition sailed across the Apara Samudra {Arabian Sea) and the Bay of
Bengal, and managed to travel to Nanzhao by way of the Irrawaddy River
— an incredible and obviously dangerous undertaking.

As to the identity of the capital of Argyre, Ptolemy was told that the
Sanskritic name of the ruling dynasty was Chandra, which his informants,
using the Prakrit parallel, pronounced Chada. Linguistic difficulties meant
that Ptolemy's rendition became Sada, which he also used for the capital. 17

Interestingly, the Mahaniddcsa also referred to the city as Sada, and said
that it was a premier port of call for shipping from Palur in the Ganjam
district of Kalinga (Udra or Orissa) and Tamralipti (Tamluk), on the Hugli
River, about thirty miles southwest of modern Kolkata. 1 *

Gerini, quoting from Ptolemy, said that Sada was identified:

"as the terminus of the sea-passage across the Gangetic Gulf (Bay of Bengal) from
Palttra [in Kalinga], effected in a direct line from west to east, and covering a
distance of 13,000 stadia. It xoas, therefore, the first port touched at in his lime by
ships proceeding from India to the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal, Some ships,
however, took a more northerly route, and touched at the riverine port of Antibole on
the Dhakka or Old Ganges River, before making out for Sada and the Gulf of
Martaban.""

However, Gerini did not agree with Ptolemy's identification and location
of Sada, and was of the opinion that the city was sited at the present port
town of Sandoway (Thandwair, with Ihe classical name of Dvaravati) which

■

BACKGROUND HISTORY

■

is considerably further down the Arakanese coast. He added pertinently that
some of the later Portuguese maps were still calling the port Sedoa.

[Gerini's assumption is credible, for although all the maps based on
Ptolemy's researches show Sada as being situated on the coast, it is in fact
over fifty miles inland. Why would the vessels from India travel laboriously
inland, through winding mangrove creeks, and facing possible attacks by
pirates, when the present port of Sandoway was more accessible?]

The large sea going vessels from India, known as mahanavah, were head-
ing east to other Southeast Asian kingdoms, in particular to Survanabhumi
("Land of Gold"; claimed to be Lower Myanmar and Malaysia), and to
Suvarnadvipa ("Isle of Gold"), which Majumdar identifies as Sumatra, to-
gether with some of the islands in the region. Several interpretations of the
exact location of these fabled lands are current. Another name for this region
was the legendary Chryse, known to Pomonius Mela, Pliny the Elder and
others of an earlier period, and which is now accepted as covering a large
swathe of Southeast Asia.

The second period of Indianisation

The second phase of the Indianisation of Arakan occurred from about the 4 ,h
to the 6 th centuries, by which time the kingdom of the colonists had been well
established. One must also assume that by then, the earlier name of "Sada",
for its capital, had been replaced by "Vaishali"

As a port city, Vaishali was in contact with Samantata (Tippera-Noakhali
region. Southeast Bengladesh), India, Simhaladivipa (Sri Lanka) and other
overseas realms. Relations were strengthened by trade and diplomatic con-
nections and the movements of migrants, pilgrims and itinerant craftsmen.

Nearer home, the Chandra rulers were in communication by land and
water with the Pyu kingdoms across the mountains in the east, and with the
small Mon city states in Ramannadesa.

Collis, who in 1925 quoted his source in good faith, said that the archae-
ologist, San Shwe Bu, had provided him with a translation from an old
manuscript called "The True Chronicle of the Great Image" [the Mahamuni
bronze which was located at the earlier capital of Dhanyavati].

"The Chandra kings were upholders of Buddhism, guarding and glorifying the
Mahamunni [sic] shrine; their territory extended as far north as Chittagong" [then
known as Chatigrama]. "The conclusion to be drawn from this MS is that Wesali

I

VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

(Vaishali] was an easterly Hindu kingdom of Bengal, following the Mahayanist form
of Buddhism and that both government and people were Indian as the Mongolian
influx had not yet occurred." 30

The uncertainty over the date for the founding of Vaishali

Even though the capital of the Chandras is now accepted as Vaishali, there
is as yet no coeval epigraphic evidence confirming it, neither is the term by
which they identified their kingdom known. Western scholars have based
their identification on the word "Waythali" (Vaishali), a corrupt later version
in use by the present Rakhaing and the Myanmar peoples who are incapable
of pronouncing the character "v".

If it was indeed Vaishali, Dr Johnston, an epigraphist of Balliol College,
Oxford, who translated the Sanskrit inscription (circa 729) of Ananda
Chandra, Maharaja of Vaishali, felt that the region had come under the
control of the descendents of the [Licchavi] ruling family from Vaishali, Bihar,
when they fled from the ascendancy of the Imperial Guptas (circa 300-
467). 314 "

Johnston's theory is plausible, as the time scale corresponds with the sec-
ond surge of Hindu migration into Southeast Asia, and the creation of the
new Vaishali, when the Licchavi, under Dven Chandra (circa 370-425) estab-
lished a Chandra vamsa (Lunar dynasty); previously the Licchavi claimed to
be of the Surya vamsa (Solar dynasty).

However, at the present time, different opinions are current amongst schol-
ars as to the identity of the city which Dven Chandra inaugurated. While
some believe that it was the older Dhanyavati (meaning "rich as a source for
food grains" because of the fertility of the earth), about sixteen miles to the
north, others are of the opinion that it was Vaishali.

If we assume that it was the latter, at the location [Latitude 20° 40' 05"
North, Longitude 93° 90' East] which was to become Vaishali, there was
probably in existence a sizable number of colonists from the subcontinent,
making it an ideal choice for the high-born Licchavi.

Then again, if it was Dhanyavati, it is unclear if the Licchavi replaced the
earlier ruling house. This was an important site containing the Mahamuni
Shrine, with its reputedly miraculous 'living' bronze image of Buddha. How-
ever, apart from legendry accounts invented centuries later, there is as yet no
evidence of a contemporary nature to suggest that the shrine was already in
existence when the Licchavi established the spot as their new capital.

8

iiniiflifHctafttia

BACKGROUND HISTORY

As Sada was mentioned in the Mahaniddesa, followed by Mitchiner's in-
terpretation of Ptolemy's 2 nd century rendition of "Chandra", perhaps the
dynastic name of this older dynasty, too, was Chandra?

Little is known of these early raja (s) who ruled at Dhanyavati, apart from
the fabricated accounts in later native chronicles which date this dynasty
from 600 BCE to 400 CE. Htun Shwe Kaing has gone further and pushed the
date for "the First Dhanyavati dynasty" to 3000 BCE, which one must accept
as pure wishful thinking. 23

In circa 729 CE, the inscription set by Ananda Chandra provided a list of
the long line of past rulers, and the major events which occurred during their
time of sovereignty. It stated that as the region was unstable, the monarch
Dven Chandra had to subdue no less than 101 kings, presumably local tribal
chiefs {this is a common symbolic number used to describe the many races of
man, implying that as the conqueror of so many, he was entitled to the status
of supreme ruler or Emperor].

Dven Chandra then laid out a nngaram (royal city), 24 ovoid in plan and
measuring 2.7 square miles in area. It was protected by fortifications and
moats.

If this was the present site of Vaishali, one will have to speculate that
either for sentimental reasons, or on seeing the topography with its vast
fertile lands which resembled the locality of their former home, the Licchavi
decided to name their new city after it. Vaishali is a derivation of Visala
meaning broad, extensive, spacious, magnificent. It was also the name of
Visala, the founder of the dynasty, who was the son of Trinabundu of the
Dcsavaku dynasty, possibly a semi-mythical ruler.

The original Vaishali in Bihar, described as "a small but powerful republic
governed by nobles of the Vriji family", was one of the six great cities of India
visited by Buddha. 25 It is situated about 27 miles north of Pataliputra (Patna)
and contains the Licchavi Relic stupa and the Abhishek Pushkarini or Coro-
nation Pond of the later Vaishali rulers.

Fa-Hsien and Xuanzang, the Chinese pilgrims who were in India between
401-410 and 629-645 respectively, travelled to the older "Fei-she-li", and
reported that although the region was very fertile, this celebrated site was

already in ruins.

Whether it was Dhanyavati or Vaishali, centuries later in Arakan, the
Ananda Chandra Inscription of 729 [henceforth to be known simply as the
Inscription] enthused that because of its magnificence the newly built but

■

VAISHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

unnamed capital, "saundarya hasinam" (laughed at) the grandeur of Amaravati,
the Vedic deity Indra's fabulous capital in Svarga ("Light of Paradise"). 26 * 27

Gutman has suggested that the city built by Dven Chandra was not Vaishali
but Dhanyavati, and dated the former to the 6 th century; this was based on
surviving archaeological evidence such as sculptures. 78 Earlier, she had sug-
gested the 7 th century. 29

If this is the case, it had to be the splendid city of Dhanyavati which
supposedly expressed amusement at the opulence of Indra's Svarga.

On the other hand, if Dhanyavati had been constructed by Dven Chandra
sometime between circa 370-425, who then was responsible for relocating the
capital to a site named Vaishali?

At the moment, no one appears to agree and each expert offers a bewil-
dering array of dates and theories.

Vaishali founded in circa 2 nd century BCE

In 1972, Aung Thaw, Director of Archaeology, recorded that "a Hinduised
dynasty was ruling at Vaisali (Wethali) about the 2 nd century B.C." 30

Vaishali built in 327 CE

The writers Myar Aung and Shwe Zan have claimed that Vaishali was built
in 327 by Maha Taing Sandra, who is not listed in the Inscription, and that
this was the year in which the great Pharagri image was commissioned and
installed at the capital at the instigation of his consort Thupaba Devi (see
Chapter Eleven). 31 Conversely, the late San Tha Aung, insisted that the year
was 370.

Vaishali established early 6 ,h century

If the first half of the 6 th century has been recommended by Gutman for its
foundation, there were only two maharaja{s) listed in the Inscription for this
period. They were Bhuti Chandra (circa 496-520) and Niti Chandra (circa
520-575).

In all probability, it was the latter, for the Inscription indicated that he
reigned for fifty-five years. There was also peace in the realm, and more
importantly, the economy appeared to have been strong [this may be attested

10

; I.Uhl nnivfliilin

BACKGROUND HISTORY

by the fact that the coins issued by him are the most common in the Chandra
series to have survived].

But that was all.

There is no mention in the Inscription of a new capital being built during
his reign.

The mystery is, why was such a vitally important subject as the relocation
of the capital not confirmed and identified in the text? Although it recorded
the construction of a city, frustratingly it failed to name or date the event.

To confuse matters further, the later Rakhaing chronicles have also claimed
a date for the establishment of Vaishali — in fact a baffling number.

To quote but a few.

One source 32 asserted that Vaishali was built by the monarch Vasudeva
[not listed in the Inscription]. Another said that Vasudeva and his nine broth-
ers took over old Arakan and established themselves at Dvaravati (now
Thandwair, also known as Sandoway during British colonial times; the city
reputedly had a habit of floating off into the air and had to be tethered to the
ground by a massive chain].

Vasudeva is also another name for the god Krishna, who is the eighth
manifestation of Vishnu.

Providentially, we have Gutman's version regarding this mysterious
Vasudeva. She explains that he was the focus of the Bhagavata cult [con-
nected with the worship of Vishnu or Krishna] adopted by the Gupta monarchs,
which the Chandra rulers felt obliged to imitate, doubtless to bolster their self
importance."

According to Dallapiccola, in India the cult later amalgamated with the
Vaishnava faction of the Pancharatras."

One must assume that somehow this information filtered down through
the centuries to later Rakhaing chroniclers who were totally unaware of its
significance, and presumed that Vasudeva had to be the name of a very
important monarch, and was therefore the ideal candidate for the founder of
Vaishali.

11

■

i tiumiiHitiitno

VAISHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

Vaishali constructed in 788 CE

An indication of how these supposedly ancient Rakhaing chronicles could get
their facts terribly wrong is revealed by Collis, who was equally ignorant of
the piece of information he was quoting.

"The area now known as north Arakan has been for many years before the 8 ,k century
the seat of Hindu dynasties; in 788 A.D., a new dynasty, known as the Chandras,
founded the city of Wesali [the dynasty then] came to an end in 957 A.D., being
overwhelmed by a Mongolian invasion."**

[The date could not possibly be 788, for the Chandra dynasty had ended
by circa 600. Yet, according to Kyi Khin, who was doubtless quoting one of
the later Rakhaing chronicles, it was Maha Tain Sandara who rebuilt the old
[and presumably abandoned] city of Vaishali in 788, and that it was de-
stroyed in 957. 36

Vaishali built in 790 CE

Forchhammer, quoting the Sappadanapakarana (Sarvasthanaprakarana), claimed
to be "an ancient Arakanese manuscript of great value" added another twist to
the story;

"In the year 152 B.E [Buddhist Era] (A.D. 790) the new city of Vesali [sic] was
founded by the King Mahataingcandra on the site where the old town had stood." 37

As the chronicle did not identify this "old town", Dhanyavati is out of the
question as it is nearly sixteen miles to the north. Another source, however,
said that this "old town" was Ramavati ("The City of Rama").

Vaishali created in 887 CE

Aung Tha U, who failed to reveal his source, made the surprising claim that
Vaishali was founded by Maha Sandra in 887 CE. M He was obviously not
aware that the oldest section of the Inscription [the text on the east face of
the pillar] was already in existence by the reigns of either Bhumi Chandra
(circa 489-496) or Bhuti Chandra (circa 496-520) wi Vaishali itself, and that
by 887, the Chandra dynasty had long ceased to exist.

The by now bemused and mystified reader will be relieved to learn that
at this point in time all theories are tentative. Until archaeological and scien-
tific investigations have been conducted thoroughly, and centuries of

12

flSnfi

BACKGROUND HISTORY

#

entrenched and bewildering myths created by later native chroniclers which
have influenced some naive foreign scholars, eradicated.

It will probably be many years before a competent archaeologist or histo-
rian, will be able to unravel this mystery and present an acceptable account
of this period.

Regarding the founding of the earlier Dhanyavati, as Gutman has sug-
gested a period sometime between 370-425, one must also presume that this
should be accepted as the date for the construction of the Mahamuni Shrine
on Sirigutta hill, thereby causing the chroniclers, invariably monks of a later
age, to spin in their graves.

These pious men have stated, and with great authority, that the dedica-
tion of the shrine and its bronze icon was attended by none other than
Buddha himself, who 'activated' the icon by breathing 'life' into it, and named
it the Candasara image.

One is informed that on that fabulous day when the bronze image was
created, among the distinguished guests were none other than Indra and
Visvakarman (Tvashtri), the celestial architect and creator of Indra's Swarga,
who was also responsible for casting the image, and for the construction of
the shrine to house it.

This preposterous claim is still accepted by the entire country.

As supernatural beings, if Indra and Visvakarman were endowed with
such impressive magical powers, why was there a need to actually cast a

bronze image? Could it not have been magicked out of thin air?

Then again, why were Hindu gods attending and taking part in a Bud-
dhist ceremony?

If as it is now claimed that this centre of worship was of great importance
at the time, why was it not mentioned in the Inscription?

The Rakhaing who are of Sino-Tibetan stock, did not arrive at their present
homeland from Western China until about the 10* century CE. However,
their quasi-historical records which are secondary material compiled centu-
ries later, and liberally sprinkled with anachronisms, now maintain that they
have been in their country since 5000 BCE. They also claim, quite seriously,
the early Indian dynasties of Dhanyavati and Veshali as their own — peopled
by the Rakhaing race. 39

13

ihUhiHuiiailnfi

Gnapier L7our

The Ananda Chandra Inscription

CThe contents of all the previous records pale in comparison to that of the
Dharmarajandaja vamsa (dynasty) (circa 649-circa 729). Although none of
the dedicatory records include a date, the names on the coins and the signifi-
cant list of the rulers in the Inscription have helped scholars to identify the
royal donors.

Had it not been for Johnston and the Indian epigraphists before him, the
contents of the Inscription which remained inaccessible for well over a thou-
sand years, would never have been known. Although the Rakhaihg chroniclers,
monks and laymen alike, were incapable of deciphering the Sanskrit text,
they were not above providing fictitious names and accounts of the rulers of
this and other ancient sites.

While the Inscription, which consists of sixty-five verses [seventy-one and
a half lines] has provided important material regarding dates and locations,
its compiler could also be infuriatingly terse at times. Neither the name of the
kingdom or the two premier city sites of Dhanyavati and Vaishali are men-
tioned; it simply states that a nagaram (royal city) had been established.

Since nothing comparable to this eleven foot high monolith exists in
Myanmar, during my visits in 2002 and 2005, I was distressed to find it
neglected and the text flaking. Though it is four sided, only three faces are
inscribed in a Nagari script which is allied to those of North-Eastern India
and Vanga (Bengal).

As the monolith is cemented to the floor, each of the four panels has been
designated according to the cardinal direction in which it faces; this is for
easy reference.

39

iiitftumhi HiMflilnh

VA1SHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

And now for some deduction games on the age of the inscription on each
panel.

The panel on the east face

While Johnston merely said that the script on the eastern face was the ear-
liest,' San Tha Aung felt that it could be dated to sometime between 300 to
600 CE. 2 Alternatively, Shwe Zan was less vague and claimed that the record
could be credited to either Bhumi Chandra (circa 489-496) or Bhuti Chandra
(circa 496-520). 3 Gutman has also suggested that it was similar to the type of
script used in Bengal during the early sixth century. 4

The panel on the north face

Although Johnston suggested a date for the type of script on the north panel
he mentioned that several smaller inscriptions in Bengali characters, had been
added during the tenth century. Gutman, on the other hand, felt that the
principal text in this section was of the mid eleventh century. 5 Then again,
Kyi Khin in his Report, indicated that the first four lines on the north panel
were of the 7* 1 century, and that the short inscriptions at the base belonged
to the 9 ,n century. 6

Regrettably, the contents of the eastern and northern faces have not yet
been fully investigated, and the situation has reached a critical point as the
surfaces are fast deteriorating. Half-hearted plans to have the texts studied
and translated have not materialized.

[The profound apathy which appears to grip most civil servants in the
relevant departments may be one of the reasons. One must also assume that
there are no competent epigraphists available to attempt unravelling the in-
scriptions. By all accounts, resources are now focused on the archaeology in
Myanmar proper, with early Arakan and old Mon thrust to one side].

The panel on the west face

Fortunately, this segment which is reasonably preserved, is a prasasti (record
of a ruler's qualities and achievements) of Ananda Chandra and his pred-
ecessors, including some earlier monarchs who are thought to be legendary.
Johnston dated the type of script to the sixth or early seventh century, 7 while
Gutman felt that it was from the earlier part of the eighth century. 8

40

flit 110

THE ANANDA CHANDRA INSCRIPTION

This priceless document not only lists the personalities of each monarch,
but also some of the major events of every reign, and is the focus of this

work. 9

Since the pillar which is now sited at the Shitthaung pagoda [the stupa
which [allegedly] contains eighty thousand Buddha images], the Inscription
has variously been called either the Shitthaung Pillar, the Mrohaung [another
name for the town of Mrauk U] Inscription, or the Ananda Chandra Inscrip-
tion.

As the earliest texts on the eastern panel may be attributed to either
Bhumi or Bhuti Chandra, the pillar should in theory be named after one of
them. However, for our present purpose, it will henceforth be referred to as
the Inscription, since we will be concerned primarily with the period of Ananda
Chandra's reign.

So far, the early history of this inscription pillar is a blank.

It was first mentioned in the Rakhaing chronicles when it was conveyed
from Vaishali on the orders of king Mong Ba Gree (reigned 1531-1553) to his
Shitthaung pagoda at Mrauk U, nine miles to the south. 10 Various dates are
given for this event, such as 1534, 1535 and 1536."' ,M »

The heavy pillar, together with its supplementary fixtures, were doubtless
placed on specially constructed carts. Another source said that the king's
elephant was used to carry the monolith to Mrauk U; surely a near impossible
task for an animal to undertake, trudging for nine miles with this immense
load?" The north entrance of the pagoda then became the Inscription's new
home. On the death of Mong Ba Gree in 1553, the pillar was neglected, and
thereafter for over four centuries abandoned and finally used as a gatepost.

[When more progressive times prevail, the inscription pillar should be
returned to its original site in Vaishali. As things stand, at this moment in
time, this is too much to hope for].

But this is no ordinary epigraphic record, it was once part of a ceremonial
tarana (portal) bristling with mystical connotations. The components forming
this doorway were the pillar itself, a lintel, an octagonal column and a swing-
ing gate.

With regard to the age of the first three objects, Gutman's interpretation
appears to be the most reliable. She has suggested that as the material used
was red sandstone, she proposed a date anterior to the middle of the seventh
century. Evidently, after this date its use fell out of favour in Arakan. 15

41

; iiiiitj

VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

Next on the throne was Dharma Sura (possibly named after the monarch
of the Survasenas whose capital was Mathura on the Yumuna River; Sura
was also the name of a king of the Chandra vamsa (Lunar Race). Dharma Sura
reigned circa 636- 649. As his first name Dharma suggests, he appears to
have been of a religious inclination. During his reign the realm enjoyed pros-
perity. He ruled for thirteen years, and being a devout monarch he entered
Svarga.

This brief dynasty which held sway for forty-nine years may have ended
with Dharma Sura.

The interregnum

It is a tremendous shame that apart from the document relating to Ananda
Chandra, the rest of the texts engraved on various parts of the monolith have
not been translated.

Johnston felt that many of the smaller inscriptions contained lists of names,
which he assumed were of local lords, two of which he could decipher. These
were the mysterious Prabha Chandra and Bhupalah Sri Candakeyura
Varmrna.^

Perhaps, one day, all will be revealed as to who these personages were,
but one should not hold one's breath.

The Sri Dharmaraj-andaja vamsa (dynasty) (circa 649-729).

A new and powerful ruling family then took command of the situation in the
kingdom.

Johnston felt the above dynastic name implied that their ancestry could be
traced back to Brahma and Manu, the latter being the ancestral progenitor of
the ten lines of kings of classical India. It inferred they were of the noble
kshatriya (warrior) caste. 5 Sircar added that Sri Dharmaraj-andaja vamsa
meant a succession of distinguished and righteous rulers belonging to the
Dev-andaja clan (the deity Garuda (the sacred Brahminy kite: Haliastur Indus)
which is also the vehicle of Vishnu. This was indicated and affirmed in the
Inscription by the Garuda motif; the Gupta monarchs also employed this
device)."

And for the first time, thanks to the compiler of the Inscription, we have
evidence of the identity of the new ruling family and their origins.

54

THE DYNASTIES MENTIONED IN THE INSCRIPTION

In verse 64, he clearly states that Ananda Chandra was a descendant of
the Saiva-Andhra monarehs 7 [presumably of Vengi ?] whose kingdom was
located between the Godavari and the Krishna Rivers, and close to the Bay
of Bengal.

Johnston was unsure, and felt it was a dynasty based somewhere in the
Deccan [an immense region of middle India].

It is interesting that as late as the 7* century, ambitious members of some
of India's princely houses were crossing the Bay to Arakan with the intention
of carving out a kingdom for themselves. And they succeeded.

The founder of this new dynasty was Vajra Sakti ("The Thunderbolt of
Karttikeya") reigned circa 649-665. 8 In addition to having been descended
from the Saiva-Andhra kings, he is also described as one who was of the
Deva family, indicating that his mother was a princess of the Deva dynasty;
we have here a scion of two prominent ruling houses. Unfortunately, this
particular Deva dynasty cannot as yet be traced; the only Devas this author
is aware of ruled in the kingdom of Harikela, part of Samatata, and which
came into prominence well after Vajra Sakti/s reign.

Vajra Sakti who was in power for sixteen years was renowned for his
dedication to religion, and therefore, according to the text, comparable to a
Vajrin (Indra); had he been of the Theravada persuasion, as is now sug-
gested, would such a comparison have been used? The mention of
danasiladisamyukta indicated that he was a follower of the Mahayana school
of Buddhism 9 — doubtless with a dash of Brahmanism.

His successor, who reigned from circa 665-701 (thirty-six years), was the
devout Sri Dharma Vijaya (named after one of the Saiva-Andhra monarehs
who was [according to the Inscription] one of his ancestors; he could also
have been called after a ruler of Ayodhaya who was of the Surya vamsa
(Solar Race). Vijaya means victory and Dharma Vijaya indicates a person
who had overcome human weaknesses.

This monarch was a pious devotee of the "Three Jewels", and it should be
noted that when he passed away, he entered not Svarga but ascended into
lokasukham Tusitam (Tusita heaven).

References to the "Three Jewels" and "Tusita heaven" reveal that he, too,
was a Mahayanist, which San Tha Aung fervently denies. In fact, Rakhaing
chronicles identify Dharma Vijaya as a Theravada Buddhist and the Con-
venor of the Fourth Buddhist Synod allegedly held at Vaishali, in Arakan [see

55

uitnfi

VA1SHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

Chapter Eleven for further details on this incredible piece of Rakhaing reli-
gious spin].

And here, too, thanks to Mitchiner's researches, can be quoted the sur-
prising and additional information to Dharma Vijaya's long and successful
reign. Mitchiner has been able to prove, by numismatic evidence, that this
monarch had expansionist tendencies, backed presumably by military might.
He marched into Samatata and seized that kingdom from its Kara rulers
[Dani said that Pattikera was the classical name of the capital of Samatata].

The annexation of this kingdom will certainly be news to Rakhaing histo-
rians who will no doubt claim another triumph for a member of 'their' race.

It would seem that Dharma Vijaya ("The Victorious One") was aptly
named.

Infuriatingly, little information is available as to when this significant event
occurred, or the length of time Samatata was under the yoke of Vaishali. But
with the death of Dharma Vijaya, which Mitchiner believes to be circa 680 [as
opposed to Sircar's circa 701], in Samatata power passed into the hands of
the Khadgas who founded the kingdom of Harikela 10 [they were in turn
replaced by the Devas].

With the loss of its rich vassal state, Vaishali probably began its slow
decline.

Unusually, the Inscription then revealed the relationship between two
rulers.

Narendra ("Monarch of Men") Vijaya (circa 701-704) who reigned for
two years and nine months, is identified as the son of Sri Dharma Vijaya.
Narendra Vijaya may have been a youth without progeny, for the line of
succession then reverted back to the son of Vajra Sakti, the founder of this
dynasty.

Johnston was uncertain of the new king's title and thought that it was
either Viranarendra Chandra or Sri Dharma Chandra. Sircar interpreted it as
Sri Dharma ("Upholder of the Religious Law") Chandra (circa 704-720). This
monarch, who was the father of Ananda Chandra, is described as having
descended from h-anvaya meaning that his forebears were royalty; Johnston
read this as "Isa" meaning Shiva.

The text described his attainments in glowing terms and indicated that
militarily he, like Dharma Vijaya, was dominant. He reigned for sixteen years,

56

THE CITY OF VAISHALI

However, during my visits in 2002 and 2005, enquiries among the villagers
revealed they had not seen any.

According to Mitchiner, the economy of Vaishali prospered until the 6*
century, thereafter the route of the silver trade bypassed the kingdom to
Samatata, further north, causing an economic downturn locally. Neverthe-
less, he also said that during the reign of Sri Dharma Vijaya (circa 665-701)
Vaishali extended its sovereignty to Samatata where his coinage was in cir-
culation. 3

If there was indeed a decline, there was no hint of this in the confident
tone of the Inscription, perhaps the silver trade had been replaced by a more
lucrative commerce in rice for which the land is still famous. The text implied
that under Ananda Chandra it was a prosperous realm, and that many re-
ligious buildings were constructed and lavish gifts bestowed on religious
establishments at home and abroad.

Structures

Amongst the ruins of Vaishali, the prevalence of dressed stone bases for
wooden pillars reveal that the majority of the structures, religious and secu-
lar, were of timber. The carved depressions in the stone sockets indicate that
the columns tended to be square, with a deep rounded centre inserted into
the base for stability.

More substantial materials were employed on devaprasada thirthika (reli-
gious edifices) such as the Buddhist stupas and the Brahmanical temples-
While the earlier buildings were constructed by sthapati (architects) from the
subcontinent who no doubt were versed in the Sthapatya veda (science of
architecture), their descendents evolved indigenous styles as evidenced by the
decorative stone fragments excavated.

Gutman mentioned in her thesis that one of these builders left behind at
the Mahamuni shrine a beautifully cast iron plummet, similar to a specimen
now on display in the British Museum. As the latter, datable to the sixth
century CE was excavated from the Surma riverbed in East Bengal, the former,
too, may have originated from somewhere in that region. Although this au-
thor was told in 2002 that this important instrument was now in a monastery
at Kyauk Taw, sadly, all traces of it have disappeared; it is probably now in
some foreign collection.

81

:iii)UtiMltl Hilild flvifi

VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

By the time of the Inscription in 729, the places of worship in Vaishali
would doubtless have increased.

A dedicatory inscription of Vira Chandra Deva (reigned circa 575-578)
stated that he had constructed one hundred stupas. Considering that he
ruled for only three years, building work would have been frenetic. Then
again, these structures were probably votive stupas of brick or stone, about
four to eight feet high, some of which have survived. Models of this type can
still be encountered all over Eastern India, especially at the Mahabodhi tem-
ple, Bodh-Gaya. 4

Other monarchs from this dynasty, and the ones which followed, also
commissioned shrines and temples, since it was an established tradition for a
ruler to build at least one religious edifice during his reign. As the region had
been under the control of several dynasties, the number of Brahmanic temples
and Buddhist stupas were probably considerable. This assumption has been
confirmed by San Shwe Bu who observed in the 1920s that the area was "full
of ancient monuments now mostly hidden by jungle." 5 Sadly, few now re-
main as the bricks and stones have since been salvaged and put to other uses.

Regrettably, even though none of the buildings of the Vaishali period are
extant, one can obtain an idea from a few surviving models of the type of
Buddhist structures which once dominated the skyline of the old capital. The
November-December 2005 issue of Arts of Asia, page 122 (no. 41), contained
an illustration of a replica of a superb bronze shrine, which though incor-
rectly described as early 18 ,h century, is of the late Vaishali period, or possibly
earlier. As the architectural design is comparable to that prevalent in Orissa,
it indicates that some architects from that region were responsible for many
of the structures in Vaishali.

The convex-sided shikhara is crowned by a amalaka, a globular grooved
finial with ribbed sides like the Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis), the
cardinal points are decorated with smaller facsimiles. These amalaka have also
been incorporated on to surviving smaller stone stupas of the period. The
graduating roof is in five tiers, with the first and largest being ornamented by
rows of tiny kneeling figures depicted in the act of paying homage. Other
decorations consist of lines of quatrefoil motifs. Buddhas, either standing or
in bhumisparsa mudra within kotlhaka (s) (gate-chambers or porches) are flanked
by elegant dvarapala(s) while other divinities which appear to be of Mahayanist
origins, occupy niches.

82

I ttlJMIOlilltttlO

THE CITY OF VAISHAU

This superb object was originally installed in a relic chamber of a pagoda
built by royalty, but had fallen victim to desecrators of relic chambers, no
doubt organized by an antiques dealer in Yangon, and now languishes in a
private collection abroad.

Previously published artefacts from this period have been unimpressive,
but this exceptional example proves beyond doubt that there were craftsmen
capable of creating splendid works of art.

Models of shrines and Buddha images claimed to be of the Vaishali period
have also appeared in The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan by San Tha Aung
in his enthusiastic zeal to push back the antiquity of the city, oblivious to the
fact that the architecture and iconography all date to a time after the 12 ,h
century.* Just because these objects were discovered at Vaishali does not
necessarily validate them as being 'of pre 8 th century provenance. The former
capital was still a provincial outpost and a place of pilgrimage well into the
14 th century, but by then Brahmanism and the Mahayana form of Buddhism
had been replaced by the Theravada version.

Understandably, by the time of the Inscription, many of the older religious
structures built by former rulers were already in ruins. The text stated that
Ananda Chandra had undertaken their restoration, indicating that conserva-
tion of sorts appears to have been known; in the process it also gained the
much sought after religious merit for the pious restorer.

Arakan is lashed by monsoon rains from the Bay of Bengal for several
months each year, and perhaps the brickwork, despite its stone facing, was
substandard. This is very much in evidence at the excavated sites where the
surviving masonry reveals large bricks stacked one above the other in a hap-
hazard manner. Similar shoddy workmanship can also be seen at the
contemporary Pyu city sites in Myanmar proper.

Ananda Chandra was not only a restorer of ruins, he was also a munifi-
cent patron of Mahayana Buddhist and Hindu institutions. AH those endowed
by him were prefixed with his name, including an undisclosed number of
vihara (s) (monasteries) for the Buddhist Arya-Sangha. These were registered
as Anandodaya vihara ("Monastery of Ananda, the Compassionate") and
staffed by dasa (male) and dasi (female) slaves; land and cattle were allocated
for the use of the entire monastic community.

He also built a substantial mat ha (priory) for the Brahmin priests which he
named Anandamadhava; this was near the residence of the Brahmana of

83

■

VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

In both surviving sculptures, male and female wear their elaborately dressed
long hair, secured by diadems, in a large bun on top of their heads. The
earlobes are weighted down by heavy cone-shaped earrings, reminiscent of
those seen in sculptures from early Cambodia and Indonesia. Jewelled orna-
ments are worn. The costumes are not complex.

Although the workmanship is unsophisticated, nevertheless the robes,
accessories and hair styles are invaluable as they represent the mode of dress
at court at the time these images were carved.

Among the other deities on view is an image of either Avalokitesvara or
Vishnu, although its four arms are missing, the padma, one of its attributes
has survived.

Many of these sculptures are not the accumulation of centuries, but are
the work of a master and his assistants, and were probably undertaken at
about the same time. This is indicated in the details, such as the features,
costumes, jewellery and elaborate hairstyles which are all identical.

The portrait of Bhikshatanamurti

One superb piece identified by Gutman as a Bodhisattva, has had several
interpretations foisted on it by recent Rakhaing writers. Shwe Zan, in par-
ticular, is adamant that it represents the legendry Sanda Thuriya, the alleged
builder of the Mahamuni Shrine to house the bronze image of Buddha. This
is despite the lack of an original inscription identifying the sculpture as such.

"See what you want to see" appears to be the maxim amongst the inhab-
itants of Rakhaing Land.

On inspecting this superb carving, a competent scholar will immediately
notice the pair of kundala (earrings) which it sports, and which do not match.
This identifies it as a representation of Shiva in his aspect as Bhikshatanamurti,
the patron deity of ascetics. While one earring symbolises Shiva's linga, the
other, round and perforated, represents Parvati's yoni.

Bhikshatanamurti is adorned with a superb hara (necklace), and an equally
splendid waist band. A long beaded yajnopavita [a type of sacred thread)
hangs down to the knees and is taken up at the back. The diaphanous dhoti
is secured at the hips by a belt. A sash is draped across the thighs and
knotted stylishly at the right hip, from where it falls in graceful loops — a
typical Gupta affectation.

132

I ItUMliUilBiUlO

THE MAHAMUN1 SHRINE AND MUSEUM

The glory of this sculpture is in its exquisitely tranquil face and elaborate
hairstyle. While the rest of the head, which is backed by a large halo, is
covered in small curls, framed by an ornamental keshabandha (forehead band),
the long hair from the crown has been tightly braded and arranged in three
tiers of loops. The style is reminiscent of those in use in the early kingdoms
of Cambodia; part of the coiffure of a seventh century head of Hari-hara (an
amalgamation of Shiva and Vishnu) from Prasat Phnom Da and now in the
Musee Guiment, Paris, sports a similar design.

Regrettably, for people such as Shwe Zan, their self imposed tunnel-vision
precludes them from widening their knowledge regarding Hindu iconogra-
phy or the Brahmanic gods. Anything Indian is usually looked down on by
Rakhaing Buddhists who feel immensely superior. This superiority, which the
Myanmar are also guilty of, can be compared to the way the Raj sahibs and
memsahibs treated their native subjects.

Three mysterious deities at Oak-pon-taung

Less than a mile to the east of the Mahamuni Shrine, is a range of hills, one
of which is called Oak-pon-taung ("Hill-of-the-mound-of-bricks")- The de-
scriptive title indicates there were once ruins here, perhaps a monastic complex.
Conversely, there may have been kilns where bricks were made. When I
visited the spot in 2005, several stone architectural fragments, large decapi-
tated images of Buddha, and bricks, were being excavated by the monks of
the nearby monastery.

There was also a newly built shrine containing three mystifying figures,
which on closer examination of their ornaments, revealed the work to be
from the same period as the sculptures at the Mahamuni shrine. Regrettably,
and to my intense irritation, the trio had been insensitively renovated, thereby
obliterating the original details.

Earlier in 1988, a chapter in Myauk U Ian hnuti had mentioned "several
ancient stone images" which could be observed at the foot of this particular
hill. As it described the sculptures as being "seik htu" ("stuck-into-the-carth-
and-erected"), the expressive phrase implied that they were to be seen as they
had been left for centuries, either standing or lying on the ground.

In 1988, the carvings were obviously untouched and in their original form.
The abbot of the present monastery, then decided to take matters in hand and

133

.i.uhiHiiiifliiiin

VA1SHAL1 AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

have the trio 'brought up to date' so that they now look brand new and
covered in cheap gold paint.

When I complained — as I usually do when confronted with such des-
ecration* the young 'guardian' of the shrine looked incredulously at me, and
could not understand what all the fuss was about. After all, as far as he was
concerned, by performing this 'meritorious' restoration, an otherwise dam-
aged collection of sculptures had been elevated to a pristine condition — this
is the present attitude of the Rakhaing and the Myanmar — even among the
educated.

As the identity of the trio is no longer known, the monks have expediently
provided them with the epithet "Bo Bo Gyi nat yoke myar" (Great Grandfather
spirits); this is a popular title by which unidentifiable divine beings thought
to be 'ancient' are recognized throughout the country.

Who did these figures originally represent? Could they have been moved
from the Mahamuni shrine at some point in time, or was there a separate cult
centre at the bottom of this hill?

These are questions which need to be answered.

Apart from the usual nonsense, no one at the site could provide any
satisfactory information.

A notice board dated January 1, 2003, warned pilgrims:

"Scented water must not to be sprayed on the images; pebbles are not to be
placed in their hands; food offerings are prohibited; candles must not be lit;
no graffiti on the walls".

The figures had evidently been remodelled recently and the shrine opened
to the public.

It was clear the abbot of the monastery did not want the sculptures to be
propitiated by Buddhist pilgrims, as they were once Hindu deities of some
sort and not Buddhist spirits. Had the pilgrims done so, God knows how their
actions would have effected their spiritual well being - something I should
have asked the abbot!

1 was at the Mahamuni Shrine in 2002, but had no knowledge of the
existence of these statues. Had I visited the present site then, perhaps I may
have had the opportunity to photograph the trio in their original form - and
now it is too late.

134

tlHG

THE MAHAMUNI SHRINE AND MUSEUM

The Rakhaing craftsman who undertook the 'restoration' had covered the
rough stone surfaces in plaster. Whether he retained the original mudra of
each or had changed them at the direction of the abbot is anyone's guess. At
present, the position of the hands of the trio look remarkably neat, as if

deliberately rearranged to form an artistic and complementary 'set'. All three
have one of their hands cupped, as if it was meant to hold either a bowl or
an object. The gestures are quite unlike any of the carvings at the Mahamuni
Shrine.

Fortunately, the restorer had preserved some of the identifying features
which can also be seen on the corresponding Mahamuni sculptures. These are
the distinctive diadems, huge earrings, the strange wing-like appendages behind
the shoulders, the ample neckband, armlets and the characteristic belt with
its curious buckle-like loop arrangement in the centre. On the other hand, if
the images had each been originally sculpted with a rounded back slab, simi-
lar to their counterparts, these appear to have been removed.

At the Mahamuni Shrine and its environs, full scale systematic excava-
tions and research, unhindered by present biased Buddhist beliefs and
superstitions, invariably orchestrated by the local monks and trustees, need to
be undertaken urgently.

Endnotes

1. Gutman, "Between India and Southeast Asia" etc., p. 12.

2. Forchhammer, A Report on the History of Arakan, etc., p. 14.

3. Gutman, Burma's Lost Kingdoms etc., p. 34.

4. Chan Htwan Oung, "The Mahamuni Shrine in Arakan", pp. 262-265, and San Shwe Bu, "The
Story of Mahamuni". pp. 225-229. Other Rakhaing sources also claimed that the image was
destroyed.

5. Thaw Kaung, The Selected Writings of U Thaw Kaung; The Mahamuni, p. 133. He was quoting
Gutman, Burma's Lost Kingdoms etc., pp. 7-10.

6. Seckel. D., The Art of Buddhism, p. 159.

7. San Shwe Bu, "Notes and Reviews: The Story of Mahamuni", JBRS, p. 228, 1916.

8. Aung Tha U, Rakhaing Yazawin, p. 135.

9. Myar Aung, Thamaing-dair-hma Mrauk U etc., p. 134.

10. Tun Shwe Khine, A Guide to Mahamuni, p. 10, 1994.

11. Aung Tha U, Rakhaing Yazawin, 136.

12. Ibid.p. 137.

13. Ibid, pp. 137-138.

14. Gutman, Burma's Lost Kingdoms etc., p. 35.

15. Ibid p. 35.

16. Forchammer, A Report on the History of Arakan etc., p. 6. [sections from Forchammer's account
were plagiarized by Tun Shwe Khaing in his Guide to the Mahamuni, 1994.

135

witUilllD

GAapfer Unirieen

The Buddhist Council Hill at Vaishali

0n arrival at the site of the former capital, one runs immediately into
controversy.

A little to the north east of the present village of Vaishali is a seventy foot
high hillock known as Thanga-yana-tin-kon ("Hill-where-the-Buddhist-Coun-
cil-was-held") it was here, according to Rakhaing chronicles that the Fourth
Buddhist Maha Sangiti(s) (Great Council) was convened in 638 CE; 1 a claim
which is pure religious propaganda from a later age, and a confused one at
that.

According to local accounts, the event occurred during the reign of Thiri
Dharma Wizaya, a name which possibly equates with Sri Dharma Vijaya
(reigned circa 665-701) in the Inscription, in which case the dates do not
correspond. According to Mitchiner, this was the famous conqueror who
annexed and extended his authority to Samatata in Bengal.

If we are to accept the date 638 as shown in the local chronicles, it should
place this event at the time of Dharma Sura (circa 636-649) of the Inscrip-
tion.

Unfortunately, all the dates in the Rakhaing chronicles cannot be recon-
ciled with those based on evidence accepted by international scholars.

Regarding these Buddhist Councils, the sequence of events is as follows
(several versions, together with dates, are known, and this is but one.]

The First Council was held under Mahakasyapa, at Rajagriha, in modern
Rajgir, Bihar, in 473 BCE.

The Second Council under the auspices of king Kalasoka, also known as
Kakavarnin, at Vaishali, Bihar, in 336 BCE.

137

;i.)ihn«nivdi(iin

VAISHALI AND THE INDENIZATION OF ARAKAN

The Third Council was organized during the reign of Ashoka, at Pataliputra
(Patna) sometime between 274-236 BCE.

The Fourth Council under the patronage of Kanishka (circa 78-101 CE) ,
the Kushan king, in Kashmir.

Historically, the Fourth Council was conducted not in the kingdom of the
Chandras, in Arakan, but by the Theravada Buddhists in Sri Lanka. The
Mahayana Buddhists, whom the Theravadins considered 'heathens' then
organized their own event either at Jalandhar or Kashmir in about 100 CE.

In Arakan, there is here either a deliberate attempt to mislead, or to be
more charitable, confusion, on the part of the native chroniclers over the
association of the words "Vaishali" and "Buddhist Council", leading them to
take for granted that the location was their Waythali. Over the centuries, the
vast majority of the Rakhaing historians had probably never heard of the
original Vaishali in India, believing that their Waythali was the only one.

It is unclear why the Rakhaing decided to assign 'their' council as the
Fourth.

As stated above, what they failed to realize was that the site where the
original council was held in 336 BCE was at Vaishali, Bihar, after Buddha's
parinirvana at Kusinagara in circa 486 or 483 BCE, and it was designated the
Second Council [even at Vaishali, Bihar, it is still not known in which part
of the city this event took place]. 2

More importantly, that this so-called momentous occasion was held in
Arakan is not recognised in other Buddhist countries.

Although the true facts are known today, such distortions continue to be
fostered by unscrupulous monks in an attempt to draw pilgrims and, more
importantly, their donations, to the locality.

Here it must be said that San Tha Aung who normally would not have
hesitated in bringing such a significant event to the attention of the English
speaking world, was obviously aware of this charade, and thought it prudent
not to include it in a chapter on the history of the Buddhist Councils. His
comment was simply:

"These were the Four Great Councils held in different part[$] of India after the
parinirvana of Buddha."*

According to U Khaymarthiri, the present abbot at the Thanga-yana-tin
hill, the supposed Council at Vaishali in Arakan was attended by 1000 monks

138

lUUUIilii /illlfi

SBN 978-81-313-0405-1

A

AfH PUBLISHING CORPORATION

4435-JW7. Ansan Rual Du\ j Gujij.

Ntf» Dclhi-110002 E-nuil- jphbnolsiUsnl.Dci

http://www.archive.org/stream/VaishaliAndTheIndianizationOfArakan/VaishaliAndTheIndianizationOfArakanByNoelF.Singer_djvu.txt

Stop Rohingya Invasion into Arakan

2011-06-07T06:54:00.000-07:00

Opened on December 08, 2010 | Contact Petition Author
Mr. Christopher Smith,

Mr. John A. Boehner

Speaker of the House – Designate

1011 Longworth HOB

Washington, DC 20515-3508

Dated December 1, 2010

Dear Honorable House Speaker,

We are aware that on September 29, 2010 Mr. Christopher Smith, Congressman from New Jersey, have introduced and submitted a resolution H.RES.1710 to the House of Representatives at 111th Congress 2nd. Session calling on Burma’s military regime to immediately recognize the “ROHINGYA people” as full and equal citizens of Burma. The resolution also called for an end to the regime’s campaign of religious and ethnic persecution amounting to crimes against humanity throughout Burma.

Upon through study of this resolution, we regretfully found that Mr. Smith has presented false statements without having detailed knowledge of the truth. His misrepresentations are very detrimental to the people in Arakan (Rakhing) State, especially to the people living in the areas of Butheedaung and Maungdaw. We are very concerned with three points of the resolution:

1. the term “Rohingya”;
2. Rohingyas have been living in Northern Arakan (Rakhaing) state for centuries;
3. approximately one million Rohingya out of a total three million population fled Burma.

Point 1: The term “ROHINGYA” is synonym of alien Chittagonian separatists of jahadist Mujahidin known as Mujahadeen. It belongs to neither any ethnic groups nor religious category.

Point 2: This political movement started in the 1960’s, not centuries ago

Point 3: According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), there were 156,630 (not one million) who fled in 1978 during the Nagamin Operations.

We, the Arakanese(Reakhings) people that belong to one of the ethnic groups of Burma, do not deny the Burmese military regime’s campaign of religious and ethnic persecution or ethnic cleansing. But we do not agree and categorically object to the proposal for recognizing the “ROHINGYA people” as full and equal citizens of Burma because neither “ROHINGYA people” nor ROHINGYA ethnic grouping in the Union of Burma exist. The term “ROHINGYA” is never known to history nor it is ever recorded in the official documents as designation of Muslim circle in Rakhaing, ostensibly cross-bred by Arab castaways. It is only a belied term employed by the alien Muslim separatists, with the object of advancing a legal claim to ethnic grouping of the Union of Burma.

The Imperialist British, who ruled the Indian Empire, named them Chittagonians after the Chittagong District of East Bengal, where from they originated. Our Burmese history shows that the main indigenous ethnic groups of the Union of Burma are Bama, Rakhaing, Shan, Mon, Karen, Chin, Kachin and Kayah. If you will study the Burmese history you will find Bengali Muslims who settle down in Butheedaung and Maungdaw in various groups. During the last part of 1850, a large number of Bengali Muslims came to Butheedaung through Maungdaw. The local Rakhaings had to watch their movements by turn for security of their lives and properties. When the authority of the East India Company also constructed a railroad from Maungdaw to Buthidaung, the Chittagonian Bengali were engaged as labourers during 1916 to 1918. Hence they began to settle there permanently.

While the communal riots took place between Muslims and Rakhaings in 1942, Rakhaings suffered much and Buddhist temples, Buddha statutes and pagodas were burnt down. Most of the villagers of northern and southern sides of Maungdaw and Buthidaung were killed, women raped, and their properties looted. The Rakhaings from the areas of Maungdaw and Buthidaung left their belongings and ran away to nearby safety places. The houses and lands were snatched and occupied by the Muslims in their absence. Their villages were converted into Muslim villages and Buddhist temples were turned into mosques and madrashes. At that time, there were no Rakhaings people living in Maungdaw and Buthidaung because of riots, and these areas became vacuum places. Taking this opportunity, nearly 100 percent of Bengali Muslims flooded and settled down in these areas. The new generation of Bengali Muslims living in these areas wanted to be named as “ROHINGYA”. These look like recent Afghanistan Taliban, radical Muslims (jihadists) or terrorists. The term “ROHINGYA” was coined by Islamic extremists during 1950 to Islamize during turmoil after independence. Since the colonial time, there were many attempts by radical Islamists to secede Burma especially in the western part which had been flooded with illegal immigration of Muslims. There were numerous incidents in which native Buddhist Rakhaings villages and people were destroyed.

During 1980 and 1990, “ROHINGYA” organizations became powerful with the aids from the Arab Islamists and the Bengali Islamists’ man-power. At the same time, Burma had been facing great difficulty and it was the right moment for the Rohingya invaders to jihad Burma and destroy its existing cultures especially the Buddhism in Rakhaing (Arakan). It is obvious that thousands of Bengali Muslims (they called themselves ROHINGYA people) from Burma went to Afghanistan and fought along with the Talibans against US with the intention of getting help from them to make Northern Arakan (Rakhaing) an Islamic State. Arakan Rohingya Nationalist Organization (ARNO) and Rohingya Solidarity Organization (RSO) were among the groups who were trained in Afghanistan camps and were/are active in Northern Rakhaing and Bangladesh.

In light of these revelations, and on strength of the supporting documents enclosed herewith, we respectfully request you to immediately reject Mr. Christopher Smith’s resolution H.RES.1710.IH presented to the House of Representatives at 111th Congress 2nd Session in respect of the “ROHINGYA” people.

Your kind and sympathetic consideration of our request and presentation is highly appreciated.

Yours truly,

http://www.petitionbuzz.com/petitions/stoprohingyainvasion

Trinco temples under Arakan Bhikku's by Bandu de Silva

2011-06-07T06:47:00.001-07:00

Controversy surrounds the origins of the temples at Trincomalee where today a modern Hindu Kovil, popularly called Koneswaram has been set up. Though a tradition is quoted in support of the antiquity of the modern Hindu temple dating to the time of a mythical ruler named Kulakoddayan, after the Portuguese Captain General Azavedo destroyed the old temple complex and his successor Constantine de Sa removed the material from the destroyed temples to build a fortalice overlooking the bay, nothing remained there except the Bodhi tree where occasionally offerings were made by different people to their respective deities.

This Bodhi tree like the Bodhi tree at Killiveddi in Trincomalee district (Sansoni Commission Report) and in the Jaffna peninsula (Guruge), was destroyed between 1956 and 1964. The observations by Alexander Alexander, the first British writer (1805) who was a gunner in the Trincomalee garrison in his two volume book, makes no mention of temples in his time but a small church and people performing some rites from time to time at a spot close to the sea and a young man being ordained which is obviously a reference to an ordination of a Buddhist monk (samanera). He also saw a temple nearby where the occupants looked very austere and on the walls of whose gloomy looking building were paintings of crocodiles (Makara designs?).

The accounts of the temples given by Fernao de Queyroz, the 17th century Portuguese chronicler based on records left by the Jesuit priest Francis Xavier, who had visited the place and the fathers of the order of Francis and others, which are the first available European observations on the temples, religious practices of the place and about those who were in possession of the temples, make it abundantly clear that the place destroyed by Azavedo and de Sa was a temple complex that was under the chief Buddhist monk (Mahaterunnanse) of Arakan (Rakkhanga-desa in Sinhalese texts) and was administered on the spot by another monk (Terunnanse) of lesser standing and his Ganzes (Ganinnanses). The latter were samaneras or monks in training. Queyroz makes the observation that it would take about 20 years before one could reach the status of a Terunnnanse. Another description gives a post-Portuguese origin to the word Ganinnanse in that they were not fully ordained and wore white robes to evade persecution by the Portuguese after the latter prohibited Buddhist monks and teachers visiting territories under their control. Another explanation is that Ganinnanses were laymen who remained in (white) robes in order to claim temple property which became hereditary in the family. (Tradition recorded in the Kandyan perod; also see by E. R. Sarachchandra).

Trincomalee-Arakan connection

The Buddhist connection between Arakan and Sri Lanka from around the 14th century onwards has been the subject of several scholarly studies by Sir D. B. Jayatileke using the Sinhalese text Curnika (British Library and Colombo Museum), Dr. P. E. Fernando (University Review, 1959 using the same sources) and Dr. Lodewijk Wagenaar, Director of Hague Archives, (RAS Journal, vol. XLVIII) and by the present writer (RAS Academic Sessions 2006). My efforts were directed to the evidence furnished by Queyroz which the other three writers had missed in their studies and which has been selectively used by Tamil scholars (e.g. S. Pathmanathan) suppressing the major part of Queyroz’s evidence which is not supportive of the Tamil tradition.

The known Arakan connection commenced with the founding of Maruk-U in 1433 as the last capital of Arakan “when the Golden Age of Arakan Theravada Buddhism saw the import of many copies of Tripitaka which were placed around the image of Mahamuni“. A replica of the Sacred Tooth Relic from Sri Lanka was also placed at Andaw Stupa during the reign of Min-Bin (1531-71). According to the Mahavamsa the link with Arakan was maintained even during the time of Vimaladharmasurya I (1592-1604) who, reversing the process after the Portuguese onslaught on Buddhism, successfully sent envoys to Arakan to invite bhikkus to come to the island to celebrate the much needed Upasampada and bring over Ven. Nandicakka and other monks. Vimaladharmasuriya II also sent a successful mission to Arakan (1693) and invited Ven. Santana to come over. The Colombo Museum Curnika Pota and the British Museum Rakkhangasasana Curnikava and Mahavamsa give some information about the three missions made to Arakan for this purpose. King Kirthi Sri Rajasimha like Parakramabahu VI of Kotte turned to Siam after this source dried up due to political turmoil.

An explanation for the connection of Trincomalee with Arakan, to which Queyroz refers for the first time, is not forthcoming from other sources. Queyroz mentions that the state (of Trincomalee) and the maritime areas including the surroundings of the temples (pagode) was subject to Mahaterunnanse of Arakan and the temples were administered by the Ganzes of the “Sect of Budum” who were subject to him; who also received the produce of lands at “Tambalagama and Gantale”, while a Vanea shared the administration of the interior. He states further that the chief of the Ganzes who was a Terunnanse, a man of around 40 years, was converted by Francis Xavier during his visit to Trincomalee. The events described by Queyroz fall between the historical space between 1533, around the time Francis Xavier could have visited Trincomalee and 1623/4 when Constantine de Sa built the fortalice there using the stone work of demolished temples.

The power of the “Ganzes of the sect of Budum” over the Vanniya is demonstrated by Queyroz’s reference to the fact that when he became a convert to Christianity he was stoned to death by the people of the former.

Analysis of evidence

There is no reason to doubt the accuracy of the testimony of Queyroz which is based on information left behind by Francis Xavier and the fathers of the order of St. Francis who were in Trincomalee and others. It is the first detailed account on Trincomalee from a Western view that has come down to us. His account of the temples, their possession and administration and the nature of worship conducted there do not correspond with the popular Hindu tradition surrounding them but, obviously, provides an alternative dimension of the real state of affairs during the 16th and 17th centuries from the perspective of an observer who had no partisan interest in the local controversy over the temples. There is no reason for him or his sources to have ignored the Hindu tradition on the Koneswaram temple in preference to what he presented, had such an ancient Hindu tradition been present at the time. Significantly, even the name Konesar or Koneswaram does not appear in Queyroz’s record though he mentions other temples in India by name such as Ramessaram, Conjeevaram, Tripati, Tremel, (Bisnaga), Jaganati, and Vixante but he calls Trincomalee more popular than other temples and describes it as Rome of the Gentiles. Why the silence on the part of the Portuguese chronicler about the name of the temple complex at Trincomalee (he was so meticulous about details) had it been then known as Koneswaram?

This does not mean that he calls it by its Buddhist name either, but he is quite clear when he refers to the “Idol of Budum” (Buddha) in this place where sacrifices were made and emphasises that the temples were administered by the “Ganzes of the Sect of Budum” whom he says were more numerous in the country and were under a Terunnanse who was subject to Mahaterunnanse of Arakan, that the place was associated with Buddhist worship.

He repeats this in another place adding emphasis. He even makes a distinction about the areas of jurisdiction of the Mahaterunnanse and the Vanea when he says that the former held the state including the surroundings of the temples (pagodes) while the Vanea shared the area. Elsewhere he puts it less ambiguously when he says the Vanea was the lord of the interior of the country, for as we said, the maritime lands were subject to the Terunnanse (book 2, p. 245-6). Queyroz knew enough about Hinduism and Buddhism and the practioners of the two religions, Brahamins and Terunn-anses/ Gansez respectively, so as not to mix up the two, as his long discourses about the two religions show. He even refers to “Jadecas” (Yakdessa as translated by Fr. S. G. Perera) who evidently performed the sacrificial ritual and not to Brahamin priests whom one would expect to be associated with temples of Hindu worship.

The circumstances of the close relations established between Sri Lanka and Arakan during the height of prosperity of Kotte which reached a peak around 1433 when Maruk-U became the capital of Arakan and continued during the rule of Vimaladharmasuriya I of Kandy, are also in favour of Trincomalee having been under the strong influence of Arakan Buddhists. Parallels are found at Buddha Gaya when the kings of Myanmar played a key role as benefactors of that premier Buddhist centre. For example, in 1412, King Dhammacetiya of Pegu sent a contingent of craftsmen under a Sri Lankan merchant to Buddha Gaya to worship the temple and make plans for it (Ven. Dhammika: Buddhagaya).

A few remaining archaeological finds including the Padhanagara built by Aggabodhi V (8th century), the trunk of a stone Buddha statue and a better preserved “Buddha Pada” stone lying nearby would confirm Queyroz’s version (Sirisaman Wijetunge: Hela Urumaya and evidence on location).

Nature of worship

The other evidence that Queyroz furnishes concerns the nature of religious worship conducted at Trincomalee. The evidence points to more than a single type of ritual. He refers to three temples of which the one on the highest eminence was the principal one. The one nearest to the sea was given to a sacrificial ritual. The third temple does not figure in the descriptions.

The principal shrine was what attracted the mariners when they spotted it from a distance from the sea. One should not be off the mark if one concluded that this particular shrine was dedicated to a deity venerated by seafarers as it had been usual around the sea ports around the island and in other lands. An object for worship of seafarers could have attracted equal attention from mariners of different nations and faiths as the shrine at Devinuvara attracted in the 15th century (demonstrated by the trilingual inscription found at Galle) shows. The shrines at Kataragama, Adams Peak, Madhu and St. Anthony’s Church at Kochchikade are other examples of multiple participation in worship.

Considering that it was a time when a number of powerful and resourceful kingdoms had sprung up in the rest of South East Asia, commencing from Arakan and including the Pegu, Aramana, Sukhotya, Sailendra kingdoms, Sri Vijaya, Champa, Majpahat and others, and that the centre of political gravity had passed into his region (except during the period of the rise of imperial Colas), many of which were Buddhist kingdoms practising Mahayanic Tantric forms introduced from Bengal, it could be expected that links with Sri Lanka and South India and Bengal were maintained by the dynasties which ruled over these lands.

The construction in 1005 AD of a Buddhist temple at Nagapattana in Coromendal coast in South India named Chulamanivarmavihara by a king from Sri Vijaya and Kadaram (Kedah in Malaya peninsula) to which the Cola king Rajaraja dedicated a village for its maintenance, was a good example of this intercourse. Even earlier, Balaraja, another Sailendra ruler, maintained close links with South India. Later, when Colas became hostile to these kingdoms over issues of trade, Trincomalee which was under them could have played a role in the expeditions sent there.

Under the Sri Vijaya kingdom, Avalokitesvara worship became the most popular form of worship. Many examples of this Bodhisatva sculptures have been discovered all over South East Asia as far as the Philippines. Even earlier, this popular form of Bodhisatva worship especially among mariners spread even to East Africa during Kushana times as seen from hordes of Kushana coins discovered here. Trade and religious links between Sri Lanka and the South Eastern kingdoms continued during the hey day of Polonnaruva rule and we see the links continuing during the Dambadeniya rule and later Kotte and Kandyan rule. The Mahayana form of worship which commenced in and around Trincomalee in the time of king Mahasena (3rd century) became more identified with Avalokitesvara worship during the time of its popularity in South Asia. Trincomalee as the southern most port which served the commercial link with these kingdoms, came under Avalokitesvara worship in a big way. Apart from the fragments of remains of sculptures at Trincomalee, there is host of archaeological remains now exhibited at the National Museum in Colombo (also exhibited by UNESCO in Paris and London as part of the Cultural Triangle project), and of Tara, the consort of Avalokitesvara (note the famous image in the British Museum), to support the presence of Avalokitesvara worship in the Trincomalee area from 7th century onwards.

Tantrism which originated in India, first in the Yogacarya school of Buddhism and in which Nalanda where Vajrabodhi who introduced it to China played a big role (he spent five months in Sri Vijaya on the way to China), took root in South East Asian kingdoms. The Buddhist bairava worship cult as seen from such statues as a Heruka from Biaro Bahal II in Padang Lawas, King Adityavarman in the shape of a Buddhist bairava and others point to the extent to which Buddhism underwent change in these parts under Tantric influences.

The relevance of this discussion is to inquire if a cult of worship of deceased rulers of the island concentrated at Trincomalee as Queyroz refers to. The human sacrifice (as offered to goddess Kali or Durga) that had been practiced at shrines on the rock over the sea at Trincomalee (the closest to the sea), which Queyroz refers to as sepulchers of deceased rulers, could have existed side by side in bairava form as was practiced in Java.

According to Queyroz’s evidence, there were two types of sacrifice at Trincomalee. One was the where devotees “throw themselves down in sacrifice to their idols reaching the bottom in pieces being persuaded that by that leap into Hell they are lifted up to the Paradise” (Book 1, pp 66-67). The other sacrifice he refers to on the authority of Antonio Monis Baretto who was sent by Francis Xavier to help Bhuvanekabahu VII in his wars against Sitawaka and Kandy and to convert the King, was to the latter sacrificing 300 men captured in the war against Sitawaka to “the idol of Budum” (Book 2, p. 274). It can be reasonably assumed from Queyroz’s description that the second type of sacrifice could also have taken place to the idol in the shrine closest to the sea from where others sacrificed themselves rather than at the shrine which received the veneration of the mariners even though Queyroz refers to the second sacrifice as one made to the “idol of Budum”. This aspect was dealt in the earlier article “Trincomalee: Where the Spirits of Ancient Lankan Kings Roam” (The Island, 23rd December 2006).

(http://www.island.lk/2006/12/30/satmag1.html)

Bangladesh:The history of Arakan, its religions

2011-06-07T06:42:00.000-07:00

Source: Plus News Pakistan

Among the 7 Union States of Burma the Rakhine State or the Arakan is the immediate neighbour of the Subcontinent. There might have been some contacts between Arakan and the Subcontinent since the first dynasty of the Arakanese. Buddhism and the Pali language used in Buddhist Canons came very early to the Mons, Arakan and Pyus, much earlier than the emigration of the Burmese in the country which is now Burma. Pyu, Mon and Burmese/Arakanese scripts were based on the South Indian scripts.

The Rakhaings (Arakanese) traditionally believe that they are the descendants of the Sakya Sakis the race from which Lord Gautama Buddha came. Most historians and anthropologists, however, say that they belong to the Tibeto-Burmese groups.

The Arakanese (Rakhaing/Rakhine) believe that their ancestors had to chase out the demon-like beings (most probably Negrito tribes) before they established their first kingdom. After that the people had to be very united to repel the invasions of the tribes they chased out. That's why they named themselves Rakkhita People. The Pali word Rakkhita means „the one who protects his own race. And therefore their country was called „Rakkhita Mandala' and later deviated to 'Rakkhita Mandaing' and then to 'Rakkha Mandaing'. The word Arakan is therefore a derivation of Rakkha Mandaing - Rakhaing - Arakhaing - Arakan.

There is another hypothesis: The Sanskrit word rakshasa, Pali rakkhaso can be translated as the demon of water or an ogre-like being living in water. That's why the etymology of Arakan can be traced as a Sanskrit or Pali words A-Rakkha Desa (The Land which is now free from the Demons). The word Arakan is therefore a derivation of A-Rakkha Desa - A-Rakkhan - Arakan. Sir Arthur Phayre as well as Col. Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell's Hobson-Jobson A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive (First Published in 1886) supported this version too.

There is no doubt that the early kingdoms of Arakan were Hindu states. Some Hindu deities were found in ancient cities. However, Hinduism might have been replaced by Buddhism when the kings and people became Buddhists.

According to the legend of the Maha Muni Image, Arakan was already a Buddhist Kingdom during the time of Lord Buddha because Lord Buddha visited Arakan at the invitation of King Sanda Thuriya (Chandra Suriya).

U San Shwe Bu, on the other hand, wrote that King Sanda Thuriya ascended the throne of Arakan in 146 A.D, six hundred years after the Pari Nibanna of Lord Buddha. In contrast to the legend he stated that the statue was casted in the 2nd century AD.

In any case, it is safe to say that Arakan became a Buddhist Land at the beginning of Anno Domini, if not earlier. Since that time Arakan remains a Buddhist land till now and all Arakanese or Rakhaings are devout Buddhists. Nowadays, population ratio between Arakanese and Burmese may be 1:10, however if one compares the number of Buddhist temples, monasteries, monks and nuns the ratio is only 1:4. It is proven how religious Arakanese or Rakhaings were and are.

Arakan was well known to be the Land of Pagodas and Temples. There is a famous Arakanese verse: Thazun pan Khaing ta mraing mraing Rakhaing Phara paung, which was nicely translated into English verse by U Tha Hla as: The Thazun (a type of orchid) sprigs in sheer clusters, Sum the total of the pharas grandeur. According to this verse, there were 6352755 Pharas (Buddha Statues) in Arakan.

Maurice Collis described the situation of Buddhism in the year 1630 during the reign of Min Hayi (Man Hari) alias Thiri Thudhamma (Sri Sudhamma). In his book The Land of the Great Image, in page 168 where it was written: The Buddha had died in 543 B.C. Altogether 2173 years had elapsed since then, and for that immense period the image of the Founder of the Religion had remained on Sirigutta, the oldest, most mysterious, the most holy object in the world. The relics detailed to the disciples on Selagiri had all been found and enshrined. Arakan was a sacred country; it was the heart of Buddhism; and he (King Thiri Thudhamma) as its king, was the most notable Buddhist ruler in existence. Grave indeed was his responsibility. He had not only to maintain the state as the homeland of the Arakanese race, but as the one place on earth where an authentic shape of the Tathagata was preserved, a possession of greater potency than the most precious relics.

All kings of the Mrauk U dynasty, the last dynasty in Arakan, were Buddhists. Some kings had assumed Muslim Titles because, Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan), the founder of the Mrauk U City wanted to show his gratitude to the Sultan of Gaur who helped him regain the Arakanese throne in 1430. Hence, he promised the Sultan that the Arakanese kings would bear Pseudonym Muslim Titles. But in fact, all of the Arakanese kings were donors of many temples in Mrauk U as well as in the other parts of Arakan. They did make coins, one side with Burmese/Arakanese scripts and the other side with Persian (NOT Bengali).

For example: Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan), the founder of the Mrauk U City with the assumed Muslim Title 'Suleiman Shah' built seven Buddhists temples in Mrauk U. One of them was Laymyetna Phaya (Leemyatna Phara) in Mrauk U (now Mrohaung). His successor and younger brother Min Khayi (Man Khari), who had an assumed Muslim Title 'Ali Khan', erected the Nyidaw Zedi (Satee), which can be roughly translated as 'The Pagoda built by the Younger Brother'. His son and successor King Ba Saw Phru alias Kaliman Shah constructed four Buddhists temples including the Maha Bodi Shwegu Pagoda. His son Dan Ugga alias Daluya, who bore the Muslim Title Moguh Shah, was the donor of Thongyaik Tasu Temple (meaning the temple of Thirty One Buddhas). His successor Min Yan Aung (Man Ran Aung) alias Narui Shah founded the Htupayon Pagoda. Min Bin (Man Ban) had an assumed Muslim Title of Zabauk Shah; was the donor of seven temples including Shit Thaung Phaya (Shite Thaung Phara) or the Temple of Eighty Thousand Buddha Statues. Min Phalaung (Man Phalaung) alias Secudah Shah was the donor of six temples including Htukkan Thein, his son Min Yaza Gyi (Man Raza Gri) with the Muslim Title Salem Shah donated Phaya Paw (Phara Paw) Pagoda and Pakhan Thein in Mrauk U and also Shwe Kyaung Pyin Monastery in Thandwe. Min Khamaung, who subjoined the Muslim Title Hussein Shah constructed Yatanapon (Ratanabon) and Yatana Pyethet (Ratana Prethat) Pagodas and his son Thri Thudhamma (meaning the Protector of Buddhist Religion) alias Salem Shah the Second, erected the Sekkya Manaung (Sakkya Manaung) Pagoda.

The Burmese invasion in 1784, led by the Burmese Crown Prince then, was to snatch the Holy Maha Muni Image, the national Symbol of Arakan. Nowadays this colossal image can be seen near Mandalay and the statue is called in colloquial Burmese Phayagyi (Paragri), which is the direct translation of Pali Word Maha Muni. During the British Era this temple was translated as 'Arakan Pagoda'.

Many Portuguese mercenaries served under Arakanese kings since 16th Century A.D. Later, the Dutch mercenaries did the same job. So, there is no doubt that there must have been some Christians in Arakan, but almost all of them were foreigners with very few Arakanese who converted into Christianity through marriage.

According to Maurice Collis and U San Shwe Bu, in 1610 Arakanese King Razagri had appointed his younger son, Min Mangri, Viceroy of Chittagong. This prince was not in good terms with his elder brother and the crown prince then Min Khamaung, the Viceroy of Thandwe. Min Khamaung was a rebellious Prince towards his father, hence the king wanted to replace the position of the crown prince from his elder son to the younger son. However, Min Mangri made friendship with the Portuguese pirate-king Gonsalves Tibau of Sandwip Island. The marriage of Min Mangri's daughter with Tibau's son was agreed and she had to convert into Catholicism. Min Mangri had three children, two daughters and a son. In the year 1610 his son was four years old.

When King Razagri heard of this marriage and realized that this younger son was now allied with the ruffian who had treacherously seized his fleet, in 1612 Razagri sent an army under the Crown Prince Min Khamaung. Min Khamaung took this duty willingly, because his own right to become the future king was threatened. In the battle Min Mangri was shot dead and finally Gonsalves Tibau surrendered. The King of Arakan, decided to pardon Gonsalves Tibau and invited him to contrive some way of saving the young prince and his sister, who were his own grand children.

Meanwhile Min Khamaung had entered Chittagong without opposition and after attending his brother's funeral immediately called for his nephew and niece. When they were not forthcoming, he suspected Tibau, but it was not until afterwards that he learnt they had escaped to the Moghul Empire. Foiled in this, he finished his business and returned to Mrauk-U, where later in the year he succeeded his father when his father died.

Later these two children of Min Mangri were baptized by the Catholic priests. This son of Min Mangri afterwards became known as Dom Martin, a Catholic and the first Arakanese who went to Europe.

http://mingkok.buddhistdoor.com/en/news/d/3556

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan (REFERENCES)

2011-06-07T06:13:00.000-07:00

By U SAN THA AUNG

REFERENCES

1) Ali, S.M. “Arakan Rule in Chittagong (1550 – 1666 A.D)” JASP (1967) pp. 333 – 351.

2) Bapat, P.V. 2500 Years of Buddhism, New Delhi, 1976.

3) Basham, A.L. The Wonder that was India, Lodon, Fontana, 1967.

4) Benerji, R.D. Eastern Indian School of Mediaeval Sculpture, Delhi, 1933.

5) Bernot, L. Les Paysans Arakanais due Pakistan Orientale, 2 vols., Paris 1967.

6) Bhattacharrya, B. The Indian Buddhist Iconography, Calcutta, 1958.

7) Bhattasali, N.K. Iconography of Buddhist and Brahamanical Sculptures in the Dacca Museum, Dacca, 1929.

8) Buler, G. “Specimens of Jaina Sculpture from Mathura” E.I. II, p. 314.

9) Chan Htwan Oung “The Mahamuni Shrine in Arakan,” JBRS, II, (1912) pp. 262 – 265.

10) Coomaraswamy, A.K. “The Buddha’s Cuda, Hair, Usnisa and Crown”, JRAS (1928) pp. 815 – 840.

11) Dani, A.H. Indian Palaeography, Oxford, 1963.

12) Dani, A.H, “Mainamati Plates of the Chandras” Pakistan Archaeology, III (1969) pp. 22 – 55.

13) Doewai, Rakhaing Razawingri, (Burmese), Palm – leaf manuscript.

14) Forchhammer, E. Papers on Subjects Relating to the Archaeology of Burma: Arakan, Rangoon, 1891.

15) Foucher, A. The Beginnings of Buddhist Art, Paris, 1917.

16) Gutman P. Ancient Arakan, Ph. D Thesis, Australian National University, 1976, Unpublished.

17) Hall, D.G.E. “Studies in Dutch Relations with Arakan,” JBRS, XXVI (1937) pp. 1 – 10.

18) Harvey, G.E. History of Burma, London, 1925.

19) Humphrey, C. Buddihism, London, Penguin Books, 1975.

20) Johnston, E.H. “Some Sanskrit Inscriptions of Arakan,” BSOAS XI (1944) pp. 375 – 385.

21) Kyeethelayhtat Sayadaw, Jinatthapakasani, 4 Vols, (Burmese), Rangoon, 1951.

22) Luce, G.H. Old Burma-Early Pagan, 3 Vols, New York, 1969.

23) Mai, U Rajawingri, (Burmese), Palm – leaf Manuscript.

24) Mya, U “A note on the Buddha’s Footprints in Burma”, ASI, (1930 – 34) pt. 2. pp. 320 – 331.

25) Nyanatiloka, The Word of the Buddha, Colombo, 1952.

26) Ojha, G.M. Bharatiya Pracina Lipi Mala, New Delhi, 1918.

27) Phayre, A.H. “An Account of Arakan” JASB, X (1841) pp. 679 – 711.

28) Phayre, A.H. “On the History of Arakan”, JASB, XIII (1844) pp. 23 – 52.

29) Ray, N. Sanskrit Buddhism in Burma, Calcutta, 1936.

30) San Shwe Bu, “The Legend of the Early Aryan Settlement of Arakan, JBRS, XI, 2, p.66.

31) San Shwe Bu , “The History of Arakan”, JBRS, XII, 3, p. 167.

32) San Shwe Bu, “The Story of Mahamuni”, JBRS, VI (1916) pp. 226 -229.

33) San Tha Aung Scripts of Arakan, 6th Century and before, (Burmese), Rangoon, 1974.

34) San Tha Aung, Anandacandra, King of 8th Century Vesali, Arakan, (Burmese), Rangoon, 1975.

35) Shah, U.P. Iconography: Jaina Art, and Architecture, Vol. III, New Delhi, 1975, p. 492

36) Smith, V.A. The Early History of India, Oxford, 1924.

37) Sircar, D.C. “Inscriptians Copper-Plate Grant from Arakan”, EI, XXXVII (1957), pp. 103 -109.

38) Sircar, D.C. “Fragmentary Copper-Plate Grant from Arakan”, EI, XXXVII (1967), pp. 61 – 66.

39) Sivaramamurti, C. Indian Epigraphy and South Indian Scripts, Madras, 1952.

40) Thin Kyi Daw “Arakanese Capitals: A preliminary Survey of their Geographical Setting, JBRS, LIII (1970) pp. 1-14.

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan

A BBREVIATIONS

BSOAS = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London.

EI = Epigraphia Indica.

JASB = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.

JBRS = Journal of the Burma Research Society, Rangoon.

JRAS = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London.

JASP = Journal of the Asiatic Society, Pakistan.

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan ( XXII )

2011-06-07T06:02:00.001-07:00

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan

By U SAN THA AUNG

The Mahamuni Sculptures

If we travel from Akyab, the capital of the Arakan State, north wards by boat along the Kaladan River, we reach Kyauktaw town. The town is about 60 miles up the river from Akyab and is situated on the left bank of the river. See Picture. Go

On the right bank, opposite Kyauktaw town is the famous Selargiri Hill. According to tradition, Gautama Buddha journeyed to Arakan and landed on this hill first. At present, there is a standing Buddha image on the top of the hill pointing out to his disciples the various places in which his former lives had been passed. There is also one Buddha image in a reclining posture (parinirvana scene) and two caityas (one old type and the other new type). The entire view of the hill with these images and caityas is very scenic. This hill commanded a view of the rice plains towards Dhanyawadi which is situated about 5 miles east of the hill. See Chapter III for description of the city of Dhanyawadi.

Sirigutta hill, on which the Mahamuni shrine was built, lies on the northeast corner of the site once occupied by the ancient city of Dhanyawadi, whose walls are still traceable at present. See Picture. Go, the aerial photo map in Chapter III. The Mahamuni precincts occupied the whole hill which is leveled into three flat surfaces. These surfaces are surrounded with square-cut blocks of granular sandstone forming three enclosures. The lowest enclosure, which has an area of 500’ x 580’, is the base where there is a reservoir, known as Candasuriya reservoir, fed by a perennial spring The second enclosure is thirty feet up and has an area of 220’ x 240’. The third enclosure is again thirty feet up enclosing the leveled summit on which is built the shrine. It has an area of 116’ x 155’. There are a number of sculptures standing on these platforms. At the four cardinal points of the lowest enclosure are gates from which covered step-ways led to the shrine. See Picture. Go It is the oldest and most revered Buddhist site in Arakan.

In the central chamber of this shrine is the throne on which the Mahamuni image was once placed. The image was removed in 1784 to Mandalay. According to tradition, as well as the palmleaf manuscript Sappadanapakarana, Lord Buddha, while sojourning in Dhanyawadi, consented to the request of the king Candasuriya to leave an image of Him. The king collected the necessary metals and with the help of Sakra and Visvakarman made the image which was said to be exactly like the Blessed One. The Blessed One breathed upon the Image to impart life to the Image. King Candasuriya placed the Image on a throne in the shrine which he built on top of the Sirigutta hill. The image faced west where lay the places of the Four Principal Incidents of the Master’s life.

The entire religious history of Buddhistic Arakan centres around this “younger brother” of Gautama. The Image was believed by the people to be the original resemblance of Gautama taken from life and was very highly venerated. Pilgrims have for centuries come from various Buddhist countries to pay their devotions at the foot of the Image.

According to Arakanese historical records the shrine was destroyed by fire or by pilferage on many occasions throughout the centuries and was again and again rebuilt by pious kings of these centuries.

Of the original shrine, nothing remains except the three walls surrounding the three flat surfaces of the Sirigutta hill made of square cut blocks of granular sandstone, a reservoir at the southeast corner of the first enclosure, a number of stone sculptures standing along the terraces, and a few original architectural fragments.

The stone sculptures are the earliest group of specimen of the Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan so far found. They consist of single images, dials and triads. They are all made out of the same type of fine -grained red sandstones and the sculptures are rather similar in design and dresses. The sizes of the slabs having single images are almost the same whereas the slabs having dials and triads are a little smaller.

Fortunately for us, there are some writings on one of the single images out of which two lines are still legible. See Picture. Go We can read Senapati Panada very clearly and therefore this image is the image of the Yaksa General Panada. Panada was one of the 28 Yaksa generals. Studying palaeographically, we can assign the writing to the 4th or 5th century A.D. This gives us the age of the group of these stone sculptures.

Unfortunately, one of the hands of most of the images are broken. In some cases both the hands are broken. The headdresses are a braised due to weathering and lapse of time. Almost all of them have the attributes of royalty such as ornate headdresses: sometimes with crown, earrings, necklets, armlets, bracelets, anklets and a waist band tied in different fashions.

The slabs consist of raised unornamented ledges about one foot high on which the images are seated. The back slabs are mostly plain and the tops are usually rounded. In some cases there are nimbuses behind the head, elliptical or otherwise in shape. Some of the slabs have decorations in the form of rows of coils behind the shoulders.

The images have no overt sexual characteristics. The sculptor or sculptors executed a balanced composition of the figures which have smooth curves of the flesh. The artists seem to be aiming at the reproduction of sublime beauty in figures by an attenuation of the limbs and waists. The faces are oblong and have round smooth chins. Most of them are seated with their knees raised in different fashions and the postures of one of the hands can be made out to be either in Abhaya or Varada mudras. The other hand may be resting on the knee or holding a sword.

To interpret these images, we must note that the Mahamuni Shrine was built to house the exact replica of Sakyamuni, the Buddha. The Arakanese called this image in adoration as Mahamuni. So, the Greatest will be the Image of Buddha in this shrine. Any other image found around the shrine cannot be superior in status to this Buddha Image. One should not interpret the images found here as the images belonging to the Buddhist Pantheon mentioned in many advanced Mahayana Suttras devoted to meditation and perception of the deities, such as Sadhanamala, Nispannayogacali, etc. According to these Suttras, there exist Dhyani Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Mortal Buddhas and Saktis. In order to identify our sculptures with these gods and goddesses one has to search for attributes held in hands and the images of Dhyani Buddha on the headdresses. When the hands are broken and the headdresses a braised, one can speculate in many ways as one likes. It is only natural that the prejalicial mind will draw conclusions according to what one likes to.

In order to interpret these broken and braised images found in the shrine, one should first of all determine what stage the Buddhism has reached in Arakan at the period of making of these images. As we know the approximate date of making of these imges as the 4th or the 5th century A.D., the Buddhism prevailing at that time cannot be advanced Mahayana. Please refer to the last two chapters. So they should not be associated with the Buddhist Pantheon mentioned in the advanced Mahayana Suttras. What do these images represent then? We have known that all beings, men, Nats (celestial devas), Brahmas and creatures of the nether world worshipped Buddha and listened to Buddha’s preachings. According to Buddhist Iconographical Texts, there are eight classes of beings who listened to Sakyamini’s preshing. They are Devas, Yaksas, Gandharvas, Asuras, Garudas, Kinnaras, Mahoragas and Nagas. I am strongly convinced that the Mahamuni sculptures represent these figures.

Among the sculptures of the Mathura School of Art there are numerous Buddha and Bodhisattva images together with those of Kubera, the Yaksas and Nagas. Images of Tantric flavour are not met with here, not even the images of Avalokitesvara, Manjusri are to be found in this school. This school extended to the early Gupta period.

The situations in Arakan School of Art during the period of making the Mahamuni sculptures are the same as that of Mathura School. We found here Naga kings, Yaksas, Kinnaras, Asura diads, deva triads and numerous royal figures whom may also be taken as Bodhisattvas. Bodhisattva concept is already in existence ever since very early times of Buddhism. The Bodhisattvas here, however, should not be mixed up with the Bodhisattvas mentioned in advanced Mahayana Suttras after the advent of the doctrine of Three Bodies and the theory of Five Dhyani Buddhas.

Mahoraga or Naga (Serpent King)

See Picture. Go There can be no doubt about this figure. The outspread hood of a cobra with five heads rises above the head. The figure wears a three-pointed crown enclosing a two coiled jata with a lotus bud-like top. The figure sits with left knee raised with the foot drawn back to the centre and pointing to the side. The right leg is folded under. The right hand is in Abhaya mudra, i.e., the palm turned towards the front with fingers raised upwards. The left hand falls on the side of the raised left knee. The figure wears a pair of large circular earrings, plain and wide necklaces, plain Brahmanical cords, a stiff belt, tied at the front with the buckle in the form of a horse shoe and anklets.

Nagi (Female Naga)

See Picture. Go The outspread hood of a cobra with nine heads rises above the head. The face is shown frontally while the torso bends to the right. The arms are broken and the legs in kneeling position are turned towards the right. The figure is sitting in a feminine way.

The Yaksa General Panada

See Picture. Go The figure is a small one with a high back slab. There is a trefoil nimbus behind the head. On top of the nimbus is a flag. The headdress does not contain a crown. As usual with all the figures, the figure wears large circular earrings. Both hands are broken and the body is also badly damaged. The figure sits with left knee raised with the foot drawn back to the centre and pointing to the side and the right leg folded under. The left hand may have held a sword. On the upper portion of the stone behind the figure are traces of 12 lines of an inscription which contains only a few legible letters. The lines must have continued to the base. Only the two lowest lines are legible now. Fortunately, the lines contain the name of the figure, Senapati Panada. See Picture. Go As mentioned before, we can date the sculpture paleographically to either the 4th or 5th century A.D. Panada, as mentioned in Suttras of the Digha Nikaya, was one of the 28 Yaksa Generals led by Kubera.

Other Yaksa Generals

See Picture. Go The figure is similar to that of Panada, but is better preserved. There is a trefoil nimbus at the back of the head on top of which is a flag. The figure sits with the left knee raised with the foot pointing to the side. The right leg is folded. The headdress does not have a crown and as usual wears large circular earrings. There is no necklace but two straps pass over his shoulders twist over the chest and behind the arms. There is a girdle around his hips. The right hand is broken now, but it may once be in varada mudra. The left hand is moved sideways behind the raised right knee and is holding a sword.

There may be more images belonging to the group of Yaksa generals.

The Gandharva (The Deva Musician)

See Picture. Go The headdress has no crown but consists of four narrow coils on top of which is a bulbous bun. There is a flag above and two spikes can be seen to protrude from either side of the headdress. The figure wears, as usual, large circular earrings, plain wide necklaces, armbands, a short tunic and a belt. He sits with his right knee raised with the foot pointing to the side and the left leg folded with knee and toes touching the ground. The right hand is bent with elbow on the right knee and is holding a sword broken at the top. The left hand is placed flat on the left thigh. Small wing like decorations sprout from behind the shoulders. At the back of the figure is a raredos rounded at the top whose height is about the eye level.

Kinnaras

See Picture. Go The head dressed consist of five pointed crowns enclosing three or four coiled jata with bud-like tops of different shapes. From the sides of the headdresses issue flower like projections and from these fly tripartite feather-like objects curved outwards at the ends. Each figure has large circular earrings inserted in the lobe. The neck has three graceful folds and the necklaces are plain and wide. All have upper arm bands with a single fleuron projections, bracelets and armlets. A belt is always worn around the waist and is tied in front in various fashions. A belt is sometimes discernable around the hips. All figures, except one, sit with the right knee raised, foot pointing forward, and the left leg folded under. The right hands fall freely on the side of the raised right knees. The left hands are broken from the elbow. The left hands most probably may be either in abhaya or varada mudras. (To compare see Naga image). The exceptional one has left knee raised with the left hand on the side of the raised knee. The right hand may be in abhaya mudra.

The group is distinguished by round projections decorated with coil-like rows behind the shoulders. These projections seem to represent the wings of the Kinnaras. The feather-like tripartite objects issued from the sides of the headdresses and the wing-like projections behind the shoulders leads to the interpretation of this group of images as personified Kinnaras. Or the wing-like projections represent the blazing glory which emanates from the body of Bodhisattvas? In this case, the group may be identified as Bodhisattvas. See Picture. Go

We must note that Garudas also have wings.

The Lokapalas

See Picture. Go The headdresses are similar to the images of Kinnaras but they contain four coils instead of three. The ornaments and the sitting postures are also the same. The right hands are in varada mudras. That is, the hands are folded with the palms spread outwards with the fingers pointing down. The left hands hold swords with their buds on the left knees. There are elliptical nimbuses behind the heads.

The Diads

See Picture. Go There are two diads. One of them had been modified by chiseling out of the original. The other is intact. Here again, the ornaments and dresses are the same. The only difference is in the headdress. The headdress consists of no crown and, like that of Naga, has two coils only and topped with a bud-shaped protrusion Two straight horns come out from the left and right sides of the top coil and two curved horns from the sides just below the lower coil. Two straight horns can also be discerned below the curved horns. The right image has both hands broken from the elbows, whereas the left image has the right hand broken from the elbow. The left hand in this case is placed on the leg. Both of them are sitting with their legs folded but not crossed. The left leg is in front of the right. There is a nimbus at the back of the head. By carefully studying the headdress, one can speculate that the images belong to a different type of celestial being. Hence I want to interpret these images as images of Asuras.

Triads

See Picture. Go All the three figures have the same type of headdresses. They are more complicated than the headdresses of the other images and crowns cannot be discerned. There are elliptical nimbuses behind their heads. They wear the same type of ornaments as other Mahamuni images. All of them are seated with their legs folded and the left legs are slightly raised. The central image has his right arm raised in front of the body and left hand rests on the left leg. The hands of the side figures are broken from their elbows. The inner hands of these images appear to hold long stalk like objects, wider at the top. Are these spears or some sort of musical instruments? The outer hands are also raised in front. They can either be Devas or Gandharvas (Deva musicians) and definitely not Dhyani Buddha sitting together with two Bodhisattvas at his sides, since they cannot have been developed in this region at this period even if one wished to.

In addition to the above sculptures, there are two more types left. One is an unfinished standing dvarapala (See Picture. Go) and the other, a squatting figure with the upper portion of the body together with the head lost. See Picture. Go

These are the strange sculptures of Mahamuni. They have been interpreted as Hindu deities by many people. Some are attempting to interpret these as deities of the Buddhist Pantheon of the advanced Mahayana Buddhism. But after studying carefully the stage of Buddhism reached in Arakan in its evolution during the period of making these sculptures , one can conclude that they are the personified images of the Devas, Yaksas, Gandharvas, Asuras, Garudas, Kinnaras, Mahoragas and Nagas, who used to listen to Buddha’s preachings. They can be distinguished only from their headdresses and the decorations behind the head and the shoulders as all other ornaments worn are almost the same.

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan ( XX )

2011-06-07T05:56:00.000-07:00

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan

By U SAN THA AUNG

Happiness and sorrow exist in this world. Happiness means lucky, successful, possessing or enjoying pleasure or good. Every human being likes to be happy. But in some form or other sorrow is inevitable in every aspect of life. Man, weak as he is, is subjected to sickness, old age and death. Contact with unpleasant things, separation from pleasant things and not getting what one wants are all painful. From all that he loves man must part. Nothing is permanent.

Buddhists believed in the conception of the world as samsara, a stream without end, where the law of Karma functions. All beings are subject to rebirth, decay, disease, death, and again rebirth. The process is continuous.

The doctrine of the Chain of Dependent Origination or the Chain of Causation (Patticca – samuppada), a series of twelve causes and effects; explain this chain of rebirths or the wheel of existence.

Avijja – paccaya sankhara: “Through ignorance conditioned are the sankharas,” i.e., the rebirth producing Volitions (cetana) or karmaformations.

Sankhara-paccaya vinnanam: “Through the karmaformations (in past life is conditioned Consciousness (in the present life).”

Vinnanapaccaya nama – rupam: “Through consciousness are conditioned the mental and physical phenomena (namarupa)”, i.e., that which makes up our so called individual existence.

Nama – rupa – paccaya sajayatanam: “Through the mental and physical phenomena are conditioned the 6 bases.” i.e., the 5 physical sense organs and consciousness as the sixth.

Sajayatana – paccaya phasso: “Through the 6 bases is conditioned the (sensorial and mental) impression.

Phassa – paccaya vedana: “Through the impression is conditioned feeling.”

Vedana – paccaya tanha: “Through feeling is conditioned craving.”

Tanha – paccaya upadanam: “Through craving is conditioned clinging.”

Upadana – paccaya bhavo: “Through clinging is conditioned the process of becoming”, consisting in the active and the passive life process i.e., the rebirth producing karma-process (kamma bhava) and, as its results, the rebirth process (Uppathibhava).

Bhava – paccaya jati: “Through the (rebirth producing karma) process of becoming is conditioned rebirth.”

Jati – paccaya jara – maranam: “Through rebirth are conditioned Old age and death (sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair. Thus arises, this whole mass of suffering again in the future).”

The highest goal of a man should, therefore, be the stage in which there is neither birth, nor disease, nor fear, nor anxieties, nor old age, nor death, and in which there is no continuous renewal of activity.

Buddha meditates, for six years, on the human suffering; its causes and the means by which it could be overcome. He had found the secret of sorrow, and understood at last why the world is full of suffering and unhappiness of all kinds, and what man must do to overcome them. He pointed a way from the world of suffering to a beyond, the undying, and those who follow the path for liberation may also cross to the wisdom beyond. The goal is to attain Nirvana, which is a state when one becomes free from sensual passion, free from the passion of ignorance, free from the passion of existence, free from Samsara.

The Sermon of the Turning of the wheel of the law, which Buddha preached to his first disciples, the five ascetics at Varanasi, is the kernel of Buddhism. This contains the “Four Noble Truths,” and the “Noble Eight – fold Path” which are accepted as basic categories by all Buddhist sects.

The voluminous writings of Pali Canon, which consists of three sections called ti-pitakas or three pitakas, known as Vinya (Rules of the order), Sutta (the Teachings or Sermons) and Abhidamma (a complex mixture of metaphysics, psychology and mind development), in the final analyses, all lead to the Four Noble Truths. Refer page 76.

The last of the Four Noble Truths is the Noble Eight-fold Path which is the Path leading to the cessation of Pain and Sorrow.

Now, we are shown the Path. How shall we traverse this Path? From where shall we start? The following is the method usually practiced by Theravada Buddhists.

Out of the three pitakas the largest is the sutta pitaka, which is divided into five “groups” (Nikaya). They are: -

1. Digha Nikaya, 2. Majjhima Nikaya, 3. Samyutta Nikaya, 4. Anguttara Nikaya and 5. Khyddaka Nikaya.

The Dhamapada, a part of the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka, has in the Pali version 423 verses divided into 26 chapters. The verses of the Dhamapada were believed from very early times, i.e., from the period of the First Council which settled the Canon, to have been the utterances of the Buddha himself.

Verse 183 of the Dhamapada states

“Sabbapapassa akaranam

Kusalassa upasampada

Sacittapariyodapanam

Etam buddhana sasanam”

We may translate the verse as follows.

“To abstain from all evil,

To do good deeds,

To purify one’s own mind,

These are teachings of all the Buddhas.”

To abstain from all evil

All evil mean evil courses of action (akusalakammapatha). They are ten in number and are called ten duccaritas. They are:-

Kaya kamma 1. Panatipata (destruction of living beings)

(bodily action) 2. Adinnadana (stealing)

3. Kamesumicchacara (unlawful sexual intercourse)

4. Musavada (lying)

Vaci Kamma 5. Pisunavaca (tale – bearing) (slander)

(verbal action) 6. Pharusavaca (harsh language)

7. Samphappalapa (frivolous talk)

Mano kamma 8. Abhijjha (covetousness)

(mental action) 9. Vyapada (ill – will)

10. Miccha ditthi (wrong views)

All these actions are unwholesome. They all cause to unfavorable kamma results and contain the seed to unhappy destiny or rebirth. He who does these actions, if reborn as man, will be short lived, afflicted with diseases, ugly looking, poor and needy and born of parents of inferior or mean lineage, i.e., of low descent.

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan ( XIX )

2011-06-07T05:52:00.000-07:00

By U SAN THA AUNG

The Evolution of Buddhism in India

Immediately after the parinirvana of the Buddha, a large number of monks led by Mahakassapa gathered at Rajagriha, the capital of Magadha, under the patronage of Ajatasatru, to recite Buddha’s teachings. This was the First Great Buddhist Council. The Vinaya Pitaka, the rules of the order, as prescribed by the Master, was recited by Upali, one of the chief disciples of Buddha, as recollected by him. The Sutta Pitaka, the collection of the Blessed – One’s sermons on the matters of doctrine and ethics were recited by Ananda, the devoted discriple and constant companion of Buddha.

There seemed to have no written records of the teachings at that time and they were handed down from mouth to mouth by reciting and memorizing. Thus the teachings were preserved through memory.

A Second Great Council was held at Vaisali about one hundred years after the parinirvana of Buddha. It was held in the reign of King Kalasoka, a descendant of Ajatasatru. The Venerable Yasa led the Council. This council resulted in a schism among sanghas over ten points of monastic discipline. The orthodox Sthaviravadins (Pali Theravadi) won in this case and the Mahasanghikas seceded from the orthodox sanghas.

The Thirds Great Council was held at Pataliputra under the patronage of the great king Asoka (276 B.C). This council resulted in the expulsion of many heretics and false monks from the sangha community and also in the firm establishment of the Sthaviravada School. Tissa Moggaliputta led the council and succeeded in restoring the original teachings of the Buddha. It was at this council that the Abhidhamma Pitaka was supposed to have been added.

The Fourth Great Buddhist Council was held in Kashmir under the patronage of the great kusan king Kaniska (1st – 2 nd century A.D). The Sarvastivadins, another sect of orthodox Buddhists, were strong in this region and the sect’s doctrines were codified in a summary called the Mahavibhasa. This council made Sanskrit the language of Buddhist scriptures.

New ideas were developed from the Sarvastivadins and the Mahasanghikas which were to form the basis of the division of Buddhism into the Lesser Vehicle (Hinayana) and the Great Vchicle (Mahayana).

These were the Four Great Councils held in different parts of India after the parinirvana of Buddha. Scriptures of Buddhism developed by a long process covering several centuries, and many sects of Buddhism’s which formed in course of time in the evolution of Buddhism, the “Four Noble Truths” and the “Noble Eightfold Paths” (Refer P 76) are accepted by all sects as basic tenets of Buddhism.

The Lesser Vehicle (Hinayana)

The Buddhism of the Lesser Vehicle is a religion without souls and without God. Buddha was a man, not God, a teacher and not a savior. His supreme insight was gained by his own efforts. He was only a guide who had pointed out a way from the world of suffering to a beyond, the undying, and those who follow the path of liberation may also cross to the wisdom beyond.

Buddhists believe in the round of rebirths – Samsara. In page 14 of “The word of the Buddha” by Nyanatiloka, the word is defined as: Samsara the wheel of existence, lit, the ‘Perpetual Wondering’, - is the name given in Pali scriptures to the sea of life ever restlessly heaving up and down, the symbol of this continuous process of ever again and again being born, growing old, suffering, and dying. More precisely put: Samsara is the unbroken sequence of the fivefold Khandha-combinations, which, constantly changing from moment to moment. Of this Samsara, a single life time constitutes only a tiny fraction”.

The goal of every Buddhist is to attain Nirvana, which is a state where one becomes free from sensual passion, freedom the passion of ignorance, free from the passion of existence, free from Samsara.

There are three different ways to attain nirvana. The disciples can attain nirvana through Arahatship. The two other ways are to become Pratyekabuddha or the Supreme Buddha. Pratyekabuddhas attain full enlightenment but do not teach the Dharma to others. The supreme Buddha attain full enlightenment and teach the Dharma to others. In order to become a Pratyekabuddha or a Supreme Buddha one has to request a living Buddha to grant the boon of being allowed to become such a Buddha. These three ways lead different type of beings, with different intellect, to nirvana.

To attain Arahatship there are four stages. Before going to these stages we need to recognize the ten ‘Fatters’ samyojana-by which beings are bound to the wheel of existence. They are (1) Self Ilusion (Sakaya – ditthi), (2) Sceptism (vicikiccha) (3) Attachment to mere Rule and Ritual (silabhataparamasa), (4) Sensual Lust (Karma raga), (5) Ill-will (vyapada), (6) Craving for Fine Material Existence (ruparaga), (7) Craving for Immaterial Existence (arupa-raga), (8) Conceit (mana), (9) Restlessness (Uddhacca) and (10) Ignorance (avijja).

One who is freed from the first three Fetters is called a Sotapan, i.e, one who has entered the stream leading to nirvana. This is the first stage. One who has overcome the fourth and the fifth Fetters in the grosser form, is called a Sakadagam. This is the second stage. One who is freed from the first five Fetters is called an Anagam. This is the third stage. When one is freed from all the ten Fetters he becomes an Arahat, a worthy man. This is the last stage.

The Buddhists of the Lesser Vehicle believed in a cosmological scheme based largely on the prevalent Indian ideas. The universe is cyclic with Buddha cycles and empty cycles. We live in a Buddha cycle of five Buddhas (Bhadrakalpa). Out of the five Buddhas four have already taught in this world, the last one being Gautama Buddha. A fifth is yet to come. The four passed Buddhas were Krekucchanda, Kanakamuni, Kasyapa and Gautama. The future Buddha is Maitreya who is at present passing the life of a Bodhisattva in the Tusita heaven, preparatory to his descent to the earth in human form. He is supposed to come to the earth full 5000 years after the parinirvana of Gautama Buddha for the deliverance of all sentient beings.

The Pali canon of the Sthaviravadins consists of three sections called pitakas. They are known as the Vinaya Pitaka (Rules of the order), Sutta Pitaka (the Teachings or Sermons) and Abhidhamma Pitaka (a complex mixture of metaphysics, psychology and mind development).

The Sutta Pitaka is divided into five “Groups” (Nikaya). One of the Groups, “Khuddaka Nikaya,” contains the Jataka Stories. These stories are usually described as histories of the previous lives of Gautama Buddha as a Bodhisattva. In these stories the Buddha is shown to have done many deeds of kindness and mercy in a long series of rebirths as a Bodhisattva before he achieved the final birth as Gautama Buddha. This collection of myth and legend contributes greatly to the Buddhist art up to the present day. They are also among the most important ethical teachings.
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Arakan Library was founded by a group of Arakan Action Association (AAA) in exile in Thailand from Burma in 2007 doing to voice for the knowledge, the people democratic and human rights.

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan ( XVIII )

2011-06-07T05:50:00.000-07:00

By U SAN THA AUNG

The Life of Gautama Buddha
In the seventh century before the Christian era, there was a small kingdom of the Sakya located in the North – eastern part of India along the southern edge of Nepal. The Sakyas were of the Ksatriya solar race. Their king at that time was Suddhodana and the chief queen was Mahamaya devi. The capital of Sakya kingdom was Kapilavastu.

One night Mahamaya dreamt that a great white elephant holding a lotus blossom in his trunk entered her womb. This dream was interpreted by wise men to mean that she would give birth to a son who would either be a Universal Emperor or a Buddha.

While Mahamaya devi was traveling from Kapilavastu to her parent’s home in Devadaha for her confinement, she gave birth to her child, a son, in the Lumbani grove between two tall sal trees. At birth the baby was supposed to have stood upright, to have taken seven steps and have spoken: “This is my last birth – henceforth there is no more birth for me”. This happened on the full moon day of Vaisakha (May,) 623 B.C. This is the First Principal incident of the Master’s life.

The boy was named Siddhattha, or one whose purpose has been fulfilled. His family name was Gautama by which he was referred to in Buddhist literature.

An old sage, named Asita, visited the new— born child and predicted that a savior had come to the earth for the salvation of the people. The other sooth sayers prophesied that he would become a Universal Emperor.

Maya devi passed away seven days after the birth of her child and the child was nursed by his mother’s sister Mahaprajapati Gautimi.

To prevent the prophecy of his becoming a Universal Teacher from coming true, his father reared him in delightful palaces and took great precautions not to let him know the sorrows of the world. He thus grew up in luxury and led a sheltered life from which the world’s miseries were hidden.

As a student he learned all the arts that a prince should learn. When he grew into a young man, he married his cousin Yasodhara after winning her in a contest of arms.

In spite of all the efforts of his father, he saw the “four signs,” an old man, a sick man, a dead body and an ascetic. At the sight of each he asked his charioteer the meaning of what he saw. These sights and the answers he obtained from the charioteer made him ponder deeply. He realized that all men must grow old, fall sick and die. These were the miseries of existence. The ascetic, peaceful and calm, showed him a way of escaping from them. He could never forget the four signs.

One morning he learnt that Princess Yasodhara had given birth to a son. That night there were great festivities. The dancing girls after performing their dances fell asleep on the floor of the dancing hall in unbecoming postures. Prince Siddhattha sat up in bed and saw his women lying around like corpses. He sat meditating for a while and then made up his mind to leave the palace that night. He went to the chamber where Yasodhara was fast asleep with the baby in her arms. After having caught a glimpse of them he turned away. He woke up Chhandaka, his charioteer, and asked him to saddle his favorite horse Kanthaka. He then rode away towards the forest unknown to any body else. The rejoicing demigods cushioned the fall of this horse’s hooves so that no one should hear his departure.

When he reached a place far from the city he discarded his royal robes and cut off his long hair and sent them back to his father through Chhandaka. He put on a hermit’s robe provided by an attendant demigod and became an ascetic. He was twenty nine years old at that time. This was the Great Renunciation.

He left his home, wife and child to meditate on human suffering, it’s causes and the means by which it could be over come. He first went to a teacher Alara Kalama and then to another named Udraka Ramaputra He learned from them the technique of meditation and all else that they had to teach him. But his quest for Truth was not attained. He moved on and reached a place near Bodh Gaya.

He was not convinced that men could obtain liberation from the miseries of the world by mental discipline alone. He found five ascetics who were practicing the most rigorous self-mortification in the hope of wearing away their craving and he joined with them. For six years he practiced rigid austerities and resorted to different kinds of self-torture and was reduced to a skeleton. See Picture. Go

He aimed at a spiritual experience in which all selfish craving is extinct and with it every fear and passion. He wanted to reach a stage in which there is neither old age, nor disease, nor birth, nor death, nor anxieties and no continue renewal of activity.

His self-tortures became so severe that one day, being too weak, he fainted. After a while he recovered consciousness, and realized that his fasts and penances were useless, and this was not the way to achieve enlightenment. He decided to take food again and his body regained its strength. The five ascetics who recognized him as their leader left him in disgust.

One morning, while he sat beneath a large Bodhi tree on the outskirts of the town of Gaya, Sujata, the daughter of a rich merchant, brought him a bowl of rice boiled in milk. After accepting the food, he bathed in the Niranjana river. Then he ate the food and spent his midday in a grove of sal trees on the river bank. In the evening he went back to the Bodhi tree. On his way he met a grass cutter who gave him a bundle of grass. He spread the grass at the foot of the Bodhi tree and sat in meditation. He made a solemn even that he would not leave his seat without attaining enlightenment, even though his skin and bones should waste away and flesh and blood dry up.

For forty-nine days he sat beneath the tree meditating ardently. During this period, Mara, the Buddhist devil approached and tried to shake Gautama’s resolve by temptations of all kinds. He attacked Gautama with whirlwind, tempest, flood and earthquake. He attacked using his demon army, shooting arrow, throwing stones, and using all sorts of weapons. He then challenged Gautama to produce evidence of his goodness and benevolence. At this, Gautama touched the ground with his hand, and called on the mother earth as a witness. The great Earth roared and sound with a deep and terrible sound: “I am his witness”. Mara then used his three beautiful daughters, Desire. Pleasure and Passion, who tried every means of seduction. But Gautama sat firm and meditated more vigorously. At last Mara gave up the struggle leaving Gautama alone.

At the dawn of the forty-ninth day he attained enlightenment. He had found the Law of Causation, a cycle of twelve causes and effects conditioning the universe. That is, he had found out that the world is full of suffering and unhappiness of all kinds, and also what man must do to overcome them. Thus his understanding opened and he attained enlightenment. This is also called Illumination or Sambodhi. He was thirty five years old then. This is the Second Principal incident of the Master’s life. This again took place on the full moon day of Vaisakha (May).

As the attained bodhi or supreme knowledge, he became a Buddha and he referred to himself as Tathagata.

The newly awakened Buddha met two merchant brothers Taphussa and Bhallika, who offered the Blessed One some food. Buddha broke his fast by eating the food and gave the two brothers some strands of his Hair for them to worship when they reached their home land.

For a while he was in doubt whether he should preach the Dharma to the people of the world. The god Brahma himself descended from heaven and persuaded him to do so. He then searched for someone who could understand his Dharma. His teachers Alara Kalama and Udraka Ramaputra, who could have understood, were dead. He set out for the Deer Part (Mrigadava) near Varanasi (Sarnath) where his five former disciples had settled to continue their penances. He preached his First Sermon to them, thereby setting in motion the wheel of the Law (Dharmacakra – Pravartana). This is the Third Principal incident of the Master’s life.

Buddha collected a large number of disciples among who were Sariputra and Moggalana who were revered in the circles of the Buddhist, order as second only to the Master himself. Buddha and his disciples traveled far and wide and taught his Dharma to the people of those places. The Blessed – One’s arguments were most of the time persuasive but sometimes he had to perform miracles such as the miracles at Sravasti. In course of time he became wellknown throughout North – East India. He had many followers whom he gathered together into a disciplined body of monks or Sangha (called biksus in Sangha (called biksus in Sanskrit and bhikkhus in Pali). They had a common discipline. Many stories are told of his long years of preaching. The Sangha continued to increase in strength. He allowed the formation of a community of nuns at the request of his foster mother Gautimi.

Buddha’s cousin Devadatta tried to kill Buddha on many occasions on account of his jealousy and hatred.

For about forty five years Buddha and his sangha traveled from place to place, preaching to people of all walks of life. The greatest kings of the time favored him and his Sangha.

He was in a place near Vaisali during the last rainy season of his life. After the rains he and his followers journeyed northwards. On the way he arrived at the town of Pava where he was invited by Cunda, the blacksmith, to a meal. He ate “sukaramaddava” which may have meant boar’s tender flesh and was taken ill with dysentery. Despite his illness he moved on to the nearby town of kusinagara. Here on the outskirts of the town he laid down between two sal trees.

He asked the weeping Ananda, the devoted disciple and constant companion of the Buddha, not to weep, telling him that from all that. One loves One must part. He told Ananda that the doctrine he preached will be Ananda’s master after he himself has passed away. According to Digha – nikaya of Mahaparinibbhanasutta, Buddha’s last words were quoted as follows: “Then the Blessed – One addressed the brethren, and said: ‘Behold now, brethren, I exhort you, saying, “Decay is inherent in all component things; Work out your salvation with diligence! “This was the last word of the Tathagata!”

After uttering the last words, his spirit sank into the depths of mystic absorption. When he had attained to that degree where all thoughts, all conceptions had disappeared, when the consciousness of individuality had ceased, he entered into the mahaparinirvana. This is the Fourth Principal incident of the Master’s life. This end came at the age of eighty in 544 B.C. This incident also took place on the full moon day of Vaisakha (May) as did his birth and enlightenment.

His body was cremated and the ashes were divided between various groups of his disciples. Eight Stupas were built over those divided ashes by the various recipients in different parts of India

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan ( XVII )

2011-06-07T05:48:00.000-07:00

By U SAN THA AUNG

Great Events of The Master’s Life

The Eight Scenes stele of Arakan

See Picture. Go It is made up of andagu rock which is translated as dolomite by some authors and as steatite by others. The size of the stele is 6 cm at the base and 9.5 cm in height. The arrangements of the scenes are normal.

At the top is the parinirvana scene. There is a caitya and a reclining figure on a couch. Underneath the couch, there are five mourners.

The death or parinirvana forms the last one of the Four Principal incidents of the Master’s life. When he reached his eightieth year the end came. He was at Pava, which was situated north of Vaisali. He was entertained by Cunda, a blacksmith of the town and ate a meal of rice, cakes and sukaramaddava, which cannot be translated correctly. It may be a boar’s tender flesh. After the meal he was attacked by dysentery. However, he went on to Kusinagara. On the outskirts of the town, he laid down between two sal trees and that night he died. The death or parinirvana of Buddha took place on the full moon of Vaisakha (May) as did his birth and enlightenment.

Digha-nikaya, Part II of Maha parinibbana – Sutta gave us the following last words of the Master: ‘Behold now brethren, I exhort you, saying, “Decay is inherent in all component things! Work out your salvation with diligence!”

Below this scene is an archway of peepal foliage, having five branches, shading the main figure of Buddha in Bhumisparsa mudra and in Vajra sana. The usnisa is somewhat conical. He has a forehead mark and a neck with three graceful folds (trivali). He is sitting on a double lotus throne with elephant/lion/vyala motifs under it. There was a flaming halo behind the Buddha and we can see the backrest of the throne also. This is the scene of Enlightenment. He attained this under a large peepal tree on the outskirts of the town of Gaya.

If we start from the top right, the first scene is the Descent from Tavatimsa. Here the standing Buddha is flanked by indistinct figures.

After the miracles performed at Sravasti were over, the Buddha went to Tavatimsa where he preached his true law to the god who has in the previous existence been his mother for three months. The Buddha then descended from Tavatimsa to Samkasya in the company of Indra and Brahma.

The top left shows the attempt of Devadatta on the Master’s life by using the Nalagiri elephant. The scene consists of a standing Buddha in abhaya mudra and a small elephant kneeling near the left leg.

Devadatta tried to kill Buddha on many occasions on account of his jealousy and hatred. One of the occasions was when the Master was walking through the narrow street of Rajagriha, the capital of Magadha. Devadatta persuaded the keeper of a mad elephant named Nalagiri, to let it loose in the street through which the Master was passing. The elephant charged at Buddha. But when it came close to Buddha it was subdued and it bowed down before the Master.

The middle left and right figures of Buddha are in Dharmacakra mudra and in vajra sana. As usual, the left one represents the First Sermon and the right the Miracles at Sravasti.

After enlightenment, he was in doubt whether he should preach the Dharma to the people of the world. Brahma and other gods came and begged him to do so. He then searched for some one who could understand his Dharma. His own teachers Alara Kalama and Udraka Ramaputra who could have understood were dead. He set out for the Deer Park (Mrigadava) near Varanasi Sermon to them, thereby setting in motion the wheel of the Law (Dharmacakrapravartana).

Buddha and his disciples traveled far and wide and taught his Dharma to the people. The Blessed – One’s arguments were persuasive but sometimes he performed miracles to support his claim. As a result of a challenge from rival teachers, he was said to have performed miracles at Sravasti, the capital of the kingdom of Kosala. The climax of the miracles was the Yamaka Pratiharya or twin Miracles. Here he made fire and water issue simultaneously from his body and preached to the audience from the four cardinal points simultaneously.

The lower right scene is the scene of Nativity, that is, the birth of Buddha. It consists of a standing female figure holding on to a branch of a tree over her head with her right hand had a standing child to the left of the female. On the right of her there are two indistinct figures which cannot be identified. The female figure is Buddha’s mother Maya devi, the tree is a sal tree representing the Lumbani garden near Kaplilavastu. The child is Buddha.

Maya devi, the queen of the Sakyas, was traveling from Kapilavastu to Devadaha, her parent’s home for her confinement, On the way she gave birth to her child in the Lumbani grove between two tall sal trees. At birth he was supposed to have stood upright, to have taken seven steps and to have spoken: “This is my last birth – henceforth there is no more birth for me.”

The lower left scene is the scene of Parileyyaka retreat. Here Buddha is sitting in pralambanasana that is, sitting with the legs hanging with almsbowl in lap receiving the offerings of Elephant or Monkey.

According to Jinatha pakasani, Buddha went to Parileyyaka forest alone after finding his monks in dispute over a small matter. The forest was seven Yuzanas away from Kosambi twon. There, in the forest a lone king elephant looked after him day and night, offering him food and protecting him from the wild animals. A monkey seeing the pious deeds done by the elephant had the desire of serving Buddha. The monkey searched for some eatables to offer to the Blessed – One and found honey which it offered to the Buddha. When Buddha accepted its gift, the monkey was overjoyed and started dancing on a tree nearby. While dancing the branches gave way and it fell down on a sharp stump which was underneath and was impaled.

The above eight scenes occurred in the following eight sites.

1) Parinirvana - Kusinagara

2) Enlightenment - Bodh – Gaya

3) Descent from Tavatimsa - Samkasya

4) Nalagiri elephant - Rajagriha

5) The First Sermon - Varanasi

6) Twin Miracles - Sravasti

7) Nativity - Kapilavastu

8) Parileyyaka Retreat - Kosambi

These places are the eight chief places of pilgrimage for Buddhists. The Eight Great Events of Buddha’s life can thus be represented on a small measuring 6 cm at the base and 9.5 cm in height.

The ten scenes stele of Arakan

See Picture. Go The size of this andagu stele is 13 cm at the base and 18 cm in height.

At the top is caitya and Parinirvana scene. Figures on the left and right end of this scene appear to be holding some kind of branches. In between them and the couch are two pots holding flowers. There are three mourners below the couch.

Underneath this scene is an archway of peepal foliage. This archway also has five branches but is arranged in a different way. The foliage shades the main figure of Buddha who is in Bhumisparsa mudra and in vajra sana. He is sitting on a leather mat placed on a double lotus throne. He has the usnisa and forehead mark and is dressed in monk’s robe. The neck has the usual three graceful folds.

The double lotus throne rises on a stalk and is supported at the corners by two wide-straddling Naga kings and in the middle by two mythical figures. The upper part of the base which supports the Naga kings and the mythical figures consists of crouching elephant in the middle with lions at the sides. Below this is the lower base consisting of seven auspicious symbols out of which a prancing horse, a walking elephant and a seated figure with one hand upraised can be seen distinctly. Other figures are indistinct.

At each side of the main figure of Buddha stand two Bodhisattva. Above them the under the outer branches of the peepal tree are Mara’s soldiers attacking Buddha. At the top right, one of Mara’s daughters can be seen flying. Since the top left is broken a similar flying daughter of Mara might be there too.

At each side of the Bodhisattvas are two columns of figures in four tiers. The top three tiers of these columns present the usual six scenes. This time there are two figures for each scene. On three tiers on the left, we have the taming of Nalagiri elephant, the First Sermon at Mrigadava and Parileyyaka Retreat scenes. On three tiers on the right we have the Descent from Tavatimsa, Twin Miracles and Nativity. The lowest tier consists of the Naga Mucalinda sheltering the Buddha on the right and the scene of the fast or Dukkhacariya on the left.

It was said that a few weeks after the Enlightenment, there are a great storm in Bodh-Gaya and the rain fell in torrents for several days. During this period, a Naga king, Mucalinda by name, protected the Buddha by coiling his body around Buddha’s body and keeping his hood as an umbrella over his head. This story produces the Mucalinda scene.

The Fast or Dukkacariya was done by Buddha in the hope of wearing away his karma and obtaining final bliss. For six years he tortured himself until he was reduced to a skeleton. Yet he did not get the real knowledge. He finally realized that his fasts and penances had been useless. See Picture. Go

The two inner figures of the top tier show the standing Buddha. The outer figure of the top right scene seems to be Indra or Brahma. The two inner figures of the second tier sit in Dhyana mudra without alm bowls. The two outer figures are in Dharmacakra mudra. The two inner figures in the third tier sit in Dhyana mudra. The outer figure on the left sit in paralambana sana with an alm bowl on the lap. The outer figure on the right is a standing female figure with a child standing by her side. The left outer figure of the lowest tier, that is the fourth tier, is the figure of Buddha sitting in Dhyana mudra. Beside him is a figure kneeling in prayer. The right outer figure of the lowest tier is the figure of Buddha in Dhyana mudra sitting under the hood of Mucalinda Naga. The right inner figure is also a figure kneeling in prayer. These two figures kneeling in prayer are indistinct. But we can make out by comparing this stele with an andagu Eight Scenes, Seven Sites (Tabayin) stele presented in Plate 401 in Gordon Luce’s Book “Old Burma – Early Pagan”. They may probably be Sariputta and Moggallana.

The main Buddha image in our stele is uncrowned and is with usnisa and curls of hair. The Buddha wears monk’s robes only, whereas, the main Buddha image in Tabayin stele is crowned and wears ear pendents, necklace and torque on top of the robe of a monk on his body. Also our stele has Mara’s flying daughters on the top right and left corners and seven auspicious symbols at the base. These are not present in Tabayin Stele shown in Luce’s Book.

In his book, there are a number of Eight Scene steles which were, found in other parts of Burma. He had analyzed their functions and explained all the scenes exhaustively.

Since we have two extra scenes, viz, the protection of the Master’s body from wind and rain by Mucalinda Naga and the Fast or Dukkhacariya before Enlightenment, we call our stele as a ten scene stele. Since the two extra scenes occurred in Bodh – Gaya, the number of sites do not change from eight.

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan ( XVI )

2011-06-07T05:45:00.000-07:00

By U SAN THA AUNG

Postures and Gestures of Buddha Images

Different images of Buddha represent distinct incidents of the Blessed-One are life. These incidents can be identified from the posture of Buddha’s hands or some attendant figures.

The technical term used to denote the hand poses of the images is mudra. Mudras usually indicate some action in which Buddha was engaged. The action is depicted by means of a particular gesture which is the expression of an idea.

We can recognize the following mudras in the Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan.

1) The Bhumisparsa mudra

2) The Dhyana mudra

3) The Dharmacakra mudra

4) The Abhaya mudra

5) The Abhaya and Varada Combined mudra

6) The Internal Varada mudra

We recognize four attitudes for these images.

They are: -

(1) and (2) In standing or walking posture. Generally speaking, this posture is used in depicting the taming of the Nalagiri elephant or the descent of the Buddha from the heaven of thirty three gods where he went to preach the true law to his mother since reincarnated as a god, for three months. See Picture. Go

(3) In sitting posture. Generally speaking this posture is used in depicting the calling upon Mother Earth to stand witness or the preaching of the Dharmacakra Sermon or the Buddha in deep meditation. See Picture. Go

(4) In reclining posture. This posture is used in depicting the death or the Mahaparinirvana.

We can further differentiate the sitting postures as follows. The term “sana” is used to denote the sitting posture as well as the seat.

(a) The legs are placed one upon the other with both the soles invisible. This sana is called the pariyanka sana. The position of the legs, right on left, is a sign of antiquity. See Picture. Go

(b) The legs are closely crossed with the feet brought to rest on the thighs and the soles of the feet turned upwards with the right foot forward. This sana is called vajra sana or vajraparyarika sana or padma sana. The padma sana is also used to denote the lotus seat. See Picture. Go

(c) A European style of sitting in which both the legs are made to dangle down from the seat. This sana is called pralambana sana.

The Bhumisparsa Mudra

In this mudra, the left hand rests on the lap with palm upward and the right, palm down resting on the right knee and touching the seat or ground below. See Picture. Go

This mudra illustrates the story of Buddha’s calling the earth as his witness for testifying to his attainment of perfect knowledge.

The representation of the Enlightenment or Sambodhi and the incidents connected with it, form the favorite themes with the Buddhist artists of all schools. According to the well known story of the Blessed – One’s life, he called on the earth – goddess Prithivi or Vasudhari to come and be the witness of his perfect knowledge by touching the earth. This mudra indicates the moment when he ceased to be a Bodhisattva and became Buddha. He did this because Mara, the evil one, while attacking the Blessed – One with his fourfold army, challenged him to do is by saying that there was no body near at hand to witness his attainment of perfect knowledge or ealightment.

In Buddhist iconography, this particular posture of touching the earth has become one of the mudras or special attitudes. It is called the Bhumisparsa mudra or the attitude of touching the earth.

The representation of Enlightenment by the artists can be divided into two or three parts. They are (1) the temptation of Bodhisattva by Mara’s daughters, (2) the attack on the Bodhisattva by Mara’s followers and (3) the call on Vasumdhari, the earth – goddess to stand witness.

Mara had three beautiful daughters. Desire, Pleasure and Passion. The temptation by Mara’s daughters, are depicted in one case as follows. There are three groups with two female figures in each group. In one group one female is dancing and the other has adopted an elegant posture. This represent the daughters of Mara exposing their physical charms to the Bodhisattva in order to disrupt him from attaining enlightenment. In the next group both the females or one of them is addressing the Bodhisattva when their allurements have failed. In the remaining group, both female are kneeling in submission with disheveled hair.

The attack on Bodhisattva by Mara’s followers is represented by pictures of Mara himself in the act of shooting arrows towards the Bodhisattva with followers represented as demons. In the story of Mara’s attack, Mara with his demon army attacked Bodhisattva with whirlwind, tempest, flood and earthquakes.

In one huge stele at Jadispur near Nalanda, the demonic army of Mara ranged in vertical rows on both sides of the Blessed – One. They were attacking him with all sorts of weapons. On the leftside of the Blessed – One’s head was a demon with a wheel on one hand while another one below him was shooting at him with arrows. Below this demon was a dwarf throwing stone. A man behind him seemed to be rushing through the air with a sword in his hand. There were four figures on the other side of the Blessed – One representing the army of Mara. They were also rushing to the attack on the Blessed – One.

The answer of Vasumdhari, the earth goddess, to the call of the Master is represented by a woman usually placed on the front side of the pedestal below the Blessed – One. See Picture. Go She is kneeling mostly towards the left but facing front and is wringing the water from her hair brought in a tress in front of her breast testifying the Blessed – One’s merit. Vasumdhari, in this form, is very common in Arakanese Buddhist art.

We have a tradition, which is observed to this day to close a meritorious ceremony by the donor dropping droplets of water from a cup while the presiding monk offers prayers for the merit done, thereby treating the mother earth as a witness.

The Dhyana Mudra

This mudra is also called Samadhi mudra, or meditative mudra or samahita mudra. See Picture. Go

In this particular pose, the palm of the right hand is placed in that of the left hand and both together are laid in the crossed legs of the seated image. This is the attitude of ardent meditation. Occasionally, an alms bowl or mendicant bowl or a vase round, oval or pointed, may rest on the hands. See Picture. Go

This mudra, unlike the Bhumisparsa mudra, belongs to many moments showing Buddha’s life before and after Enlightenment. Some of the moments are listed below.

1) When after seeing the last of the four signs namely a wandering religious monk, he sat on his pleasance, thinking.

2) When after hearing the news that his wife Yasodhara had given birth to a son one morning, he sat up in bed that same night and saw his women sleeping like corpses.

3) When he did his first meditation after renunciation.

4) When after six years of fast and penances, he rejected extreme asceticism and accepted Sujata’s rice – alms. Here the alms bowl is present.

5) When he sat with alms bowl in lap under the hood of Muchalinda Naga. It has been said that after enlightenment, there was a great storm in Both Gaya and rain fell in torrents for several days. At that time a Naga king, named Muchalinda, protected the Buddha by coiling his body around that of the Blessed – One and spreading his hood as an umbrella over the Blessed – One’s head.

6) When he sat in the House of Gems (Ratana Ghara) meditating the abhidhamma in the fourth week after his Enlightenment.

7) On his first visit to Rajagriha, before he gained enlightenment, when he was visited by king Bimbisara who offered him his throne.

8) On his first visit to Rajagriha, after enlightenment, when king Bimbisara presented the Bamboo Grove (Veluvana).

9) When he reformed a very proud and despotic king Jambupati. Here Buddha was regally attired in royal regalia and could be seen as a Cakravartin or King of the world. He was in dhyana mudra with a mendicant bowl in his hands.

In addition to the above moments there may be many more moments showing Buddha’s life with Buddha in this mudra.

The Dharmacakra Mudra

This pose symbolize the first preaching of the law by the Buddha at Sarnath. Buddha preached his first sermon at the outskirts of Benars city in a park then known as the Deer Park (Mrigadava). This place is now called Sarnath.

Indian images of the Buddha in Dharmacakra Mudra from the Gupta period onwards have the left hand near the heart with the tips of the middle finger and the thumb joined together. The palm of the hand turned towards the heart. In the case of the right hand the tips or the thumb and the forefinger are made to touch each other, so as to form a circle, the other fingers are kept open. The palm of the hand is facing the front. See Picture. Go

The Gandhara image of the Buddha in Dharmacakra Mudra, however, has a different positioning of the hands. The palm of the left hand in a cup form is turned upwards and that of the right hand turned towards the heart. See Picture. Go

Figuratively speaking, the posture of the hands in both cases, is setting thence – forward the wheel of the law in motion. The ideology here is characteristically expressive. Buddha was in the act of explaining and teachings the true knowledge he obtained through his own efforts.

What is this true knowledge? An extract from Dhammacakkappavattanakatha. Mahavagga, Part I, pp 15-16, about this true knowledge will not be out of place here.

“Now this, O monks, is the noble truth of pain: birth is painful, old age is painful, sickness is painful, and death is painful. Contact with unpleasant things is painful, separation from pleasant things is painful and not getting what one wishes is also painful. In short the five khans has of grasping are painful.

Now this, O monks, is the noble truth of the cause of pain: that craving, which leads to rebirth, combined with pleasure and lust finding pleasure here and there, namely the craving for passion, the craving for existence, the craving for non-existence.

Now this, O monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of pain: the cessation without a remainder of that craving, abandonment, fore-saking, release, non-attachment.

Now this, O monks, is the noble truth of the way that leads to the cessation of pain: this is the noble Eight-fold Path, namely, right views, right intention, right speech, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.”

This Dharmacakra mudra hand pose is not only used to represent the first sermon at Mrigadava (Sarnath) but also the miracle of Sracasti. In addition to these, this hand pose represents the preaching of Dharmacakra sermon as in the case of our Arakanese Sculpture which will be discussed below.

The first sermon at Mrigadava

After attaining Enlightenment the Buddha was in doubt whether he should spread his wisdom to the world. The god Brahma descended from heaven and persuaded him to do so. He then left the place and journeyed to the Deer Park (Sarnath). There he met his five former companions. These five companions were his former disciples who had left him when he gave up the austerities. To these five former disciples he preached his first sermon thus setting in motion the wheel of the law. They were very much impressed with his teaching and once more became his disciples.

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan ( XV )

2011-06-07T05:43:00.000-07:00

By U SAN THA AUNG

CROWNED BUDDHA IMAGES

Crowned Buddhas

As has been mentioned in Chapter XIV, we know that Prince Siddhatta discarded the royal robes and adornments after the great renunciation. Also, Buddhist monks are forbidden to wear any other robes except monk’s robes. These two facts will naturally suggest that the presentation of a crowned Buddha garbed in royal robes and ornaments like a Cakravartin king, is uneconomical and unorthodox. But we have found many crowed Buddha images in Arakan throughout different ages. See Picture. Go

Are they Maitreya images mentioned by many authorities? We should have found other Bodhisattva images also together with these images. But we have not. The hand gestures of these crowned Buddhas are all in line with ordinary Buddha images. They do not hold any attributes assigned to a Maitreya as mentioned in ancient Indian literature. The sitting postures of our crowned Buddhas are also in line with ordinary Buddhas. The attendant figures are also the same as those found together with ordinary Buddha images. For example, the presence, of Vasumdhari. There are too many crowned Buddhas in existence in Arakan. It is hard to believe and is illogical to assume that Buddha images are discarded and instead Maitreya images are worshipped. We must conclude that the Arakanese worshipped Buddha images. The only difference is that the images are garbed in royal robes instead of monk’s robes.

We have to note that the Buddha image came into being only after the Buddha had been regarded as a Devatideva, god of gods. Again, in, the iconographic development, the Cakravartin concept played a great part. The Buddha was provided with all the lakkhanas of a Cakravartin. They belonged to the Mahayana theology and must have been present in some form from very early times. These conceptions are sufficient to account for the presentation of the crowed Buddha with all the royal attributes at different ages.

In some cases, although the Buddha wears a crown, ear-pendents, necklace and torque, we can notice the robe of a monk on his body with shoulder flap on the left and a bare right shoulder. See Picture. Go In some cases, we can find Buddha dressed up with all the attributes of a Cakravartin King; crown, ear-rings, necklets, armlets, bracelets, anklets and a waist band. See Picture. Go

Again, some of the eight scene steles of the school of Bengal and Bihar and Pagan in Burma have a central crowned Buddha in Bhumisparsa mudra surrounded by representations of the Eight Great events of Buddha’s life. See Picture. Go For such cases, the reader will agree that it would be far simpler to suppose that we have to do with a glorification of the earthly Buddha, by addition of the kingly attributes, which reminds us that the Buddha is more than man. The earthly Buddha, originally a man, has been transformed into a deity.

The crowned Buddha image most probably came about because of the desire of kings and commoners alike to worship the Buddha as the “King of Kings” as has been explained in the Maha ParinibbanaSutta.

Anyway, the Buddha is equally a Great Being, a deity, whether he appears in monastic robes or in royal robes.

Since separate images of Buddha represent incidents of the Blessed One’s life, we must be able to explain the crowned Buddha with all royal attributes, holding the ambrosia jar and sitting in Dhyana mudra, vajra sana. An article by U Mya about the crowned Buddha image written in the Report of the Director, Archaeological Survey, Burma for the year ending 30th September 1955, and published in 1961 is presented here. This is the Burmese version of the explanation of the existence of Crowned Buddha.

The majority of Buddha images depict the Buddha attired in simple robes like those one sees on present-day Buddhist monks. But crowned Buddha images were to be found throughout Burma and especially in the Shan States and in neighboring Laos and Thailand, since olden days.

The Wetmasut Wundank, a Minister of King Mindon, was intrigued by the crowned Buddha images and was moved to ask the Taung Khwin Thathanabaing Sayadaw, the Buddhist Patriarch of his days, to let the people know whether the casting and worship of such regally attired Buddha images was based on some incident in Buddhist Literature. (Vide Gulattha Vinicchaya Vol. I pp, 20-23)

Even before that time, in the year 1172 of the Buddhist Era, (about 1810 A.D) during the reign of King Padon, the founder of the Royal City of Amarapura, the same question was put by Sayadaw Thirimalar of Monywa to the learned Monywa Jetavan Sayadaw. The two answer of the Monywa Jetavan Sayadaw which appears in the Samanta cakku dipani Vol. I pp. 429-532.

“It is clearly stated in the Maha Parinibbana Sutta that the Lord Buddha did not adorn himself with the royal regalia, such as the crown, necklaces, rings, bracelets etc. However, because the Buddha delivered many of his sermons from the thrones of kings, certain inhabitants of the far-flung universes were under the impression that it was their king who was speaking to them. According to our elders, it is this impression in the minds of those extra-terrestrial beings, of the Buddha in royal regalia, which gave rise to the production and worship of the crowned Buddha images.”

The Casting of the Mahakyain Pharas

The first step in the process of casting the Mahakyain Phara is taken by the Chancellor or Prime Minister, who, in consultation with other learned ministers and court Brahmins (Royal astrologers), chooses the most auspicious day and hour for the casting.

After this, the site for the casting is chosen with the same care. The ground is leveled and to cleanse the site (i.e. to ward off evil spirits), monks are invited to the site, offered food, and requested to recite the Kammava, the Prittas, the Mangala Sutta and the Brahmajala Mantra.

A large temporary hall is then erected over the site. This hall is enclosed by three lattice-work fences, one inside another. The wood of certain trees which have an affinity for the planets - such as the Gangaw (Mesua Ferrea), the Saga (Michellia Champaca), the Chaya (Mimusops Clerigi) and the jackfruit are selected in order to obtain wooden posts free from blemish. The selected pieces or wood are then shaped into eight posts, lacquered and gilded, and then planted inside the Hall at the eight points of the compass to represent the eight planets. Staves with streamers, magical banners and yak-tail whisks are also put up. At each corner of the boundary lines marked off by the three light fences, a banana plant bearing fruit is planted, making a total of twelve banana plants. The innermost fence is draped with white cloth, while the two outer ones are draped with red cloth. Nine silver pots containing pure water together with nine white umbrellas (the insignia of royalty) are placed at each of the eight posts representing the planets and at the actual site where the casting is to take place. To melt the precious metals for the image, new melting pots and a new fireplace are needed. For fuel only scented woods are used.

When the appointed day and hour arrives, eight Brahmins invested with certain sacerdotal functions, stand at the planetary pillars and blow their right-volute conches, thereby ceremonially inviting the guardian Nats (gods) of the planets, the Lokapala Nat, the Guardian Nats respectively of the Religion, the Country, the Sky, the Earth, and the Trees. They follow this up with a recitation of mantrams or spells such as the Grahajaya Verse, the Saranasirishindha Bhumijala Verse and others. It is at this moment that the sculptors, who are to cast the image, wearing pure white clothing, begin to kindle their fire, using sandalwood. Then the precious metals which are to be used for casting the image are placed in the new pot to be melted. This melting down of the metals is done only during the day. The pot must not be removed from the fireplace at this juncture. Neither must the fire be extinguished. It has to be allowed to die down by itself. The melting process continues for nine whole days till the auspicious moment arrives for the sculptors to cast the Mahakyain Phara. During the casting, the image is made to face the east. While the casting is in progress, the Brahmins strew closured artificial flowers made from rice grains parched till they burst open, and they recite the verse beginning “Anekajatisamsara…”

Buddha Abhiseka Mangala Ceremony

When the sculptors have added the final touches to the Mahakyain Phara image, the Brahmins ceremonially wash the image in pure water and then spray scent over it. A golden salver, ornamented with the nine varieties of gems, on which is laid a piece of most expensive cloth, which in turn covered by a piece of white cloth, is brought forward, and the image is transferred onto the salver. At this moment the Brahmins recite a mantram, a sort of prayer to ward off evil.

For the ceremony of the Buddha Abhiseka Mangala, the Chancellor has to invite, in advance, five, seven or nine Buddhist monks, venerable of age and renowned for their holiness. These invited monks sit in a circle around the image, their fingers holding the white cloth on which the image reposes. Then they recite in unison the Buddha Abhiseka verse. When the recitation ends, the Brahmins blow on their right-voluted conches, while the lay musical bands stationed outside the Hall produce an outburst of music on their instruments, and this outburst of sound marks the conclusion of the Buddha Abhiseka Mangala Ceremony.

Then with the Chancellor leading the way, the image is transferred to the Royal Palace, the King, Queen, Princes and Princesses as well as the court officials await in readiness to greet the arrival of the Mahakyain Phara, and to pay obeisance to it with scents, before taking it to be placed in the altar room.

The Postures

The posture of the Mahakyain Phara images is the usual crosslegged posture, but the Mahakyain Pharas are distinguished from ordinary images in that each wears a crown just like that of a king who takes part in a Coronation Ceremony. The ears are adorned with royal ear-rings. The body is covered, not with the monk’s robe but with royal garb. This garb is an exact representation of the royal grab worn by the king at whose command the image was cast. For this reason, the royal garb of one Mahakyain Phara is quite distinct from that of another, and it can clearly be seen that with progress the royal garb became increasingly more elaborate.

Among the images two types of cross-legs posture can be seen. One type has the left foot placed under under the right leg, and the right foot placed on the left thigh. See Picture. Go The other type has the two legs crossed so that both feet are brought to rest, soles upwards, on the thighs. See Picture. Go

The images can also be divided into three types according to the position of the hands. The first type is known as the “bhumisparsa mudra”, a type wherein the left hand is placed palm upwards on the lap, and on the open palm is placed a golden bowl. The right hand rests, palm down, on the right knee, the fingers all pointing downwards and the fingertips touching the ground or the throne on which the image is seated. See Picture. Go The second type is known as the “dhyana mudra”. It portrays the Buddha in meditation, with both hands resting in a relaxed manner on the lap, both palms upward, the right hand resting on the left. Certain images of this type show the two thumbs, with their tips touching each other, while the fingers are slightly spread in the normal manner. One the outspread palm, a begging bowl, a nectar bowl or a golden bowl is usually placed, See Picture. Go

The third type depicts the Buddha with his right arm bent at the elbow. The hand raised towards the shoulders is closed as if grasping something. The left hand is placed on the “lap, palm turned upwards, but the fingers again clasped as if holding something. See Picture. Go

The Size

The sizes of the images also vary, from a hands breadth to a cubit, in accordance with the wishes of the kings who commissioned the casting. The weight too varies a great deal because of the difference in size. These Mahakyain Phara images are still to be found all over Arakan.

The use of Crowned Buddha In Coronation Ceremony

For his Coronation Ceremony, an Arakanese king first selects the most renowned pagoda within his kingdom as the site, and then proceeds towards it in Royal Procession, passing out of the Palace grounds through the Mangala Gate. Arriving at the platform of the selected pagoda, each personage takes up his assigned position. The king then raises the Mahakyain Phara to the top of his head, and holding it there, he makes three circuits of the pagoda. He completes the third circuit at the temporary Hall where the coronation is to the place. The Coronation Ceremony itself follows traditional rites. At the conclusion, the Thathanabaing Sayadaw (the Patriarch or Principal Monk of the kingdom) and a number of monks who can recite from memory the whole of the Tipitakas (the three main can onical divisions of the Buddha’s teachings are divided into Vinaya, Code of Discipline, Sutta, Discourses, and Abhidhamma, Higher Doctrine), then hold the Mahakyain Phara over the King’s head and exhort him to uphold justice in the tradition of his forefathers, to venerate the Triple Gem (Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha), to encourage the Buddhist religion within his kingdom, and to suppress the enemies of Buddhism. The king has to take an oath and declare that he will faithfully discharge his duties as enumerated above. This oath-taking is the high point of the ceremony.

In this manner, every king of Arakan (according to tradition), has had a Mahakyain Phara cast for his coronation. The images are shown crowned and in the royal garb of the kings who had cast them, so the mode of dress of the Arakanese kings can be conjectured very accurately from a study of these images.

The Arakanese Tradition

The Arakanese peasantry in olden days very often used a Buddha image to take an oath in trying to settle conflicting claims or even criminal cases. This practice was no doubt, in some measure, due to their belief and faith in Buddhism but could just as easily have derived from the King’s Royal Oath-taking.

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan ( XIV )

2011-06-07T05:38:00.000-07:00

By U SAN THA AUNG

The Head, The Hair And The Usnisa

Buddha Images

The biography of Buddha relates that Prince Siddharttha, son of Suddhodana, king of the Sakyas, made the great renunciation at the age of 29. One night he rode off from the palace and when far from the city he stripped off his ornaments and royal robes. He cut off his long hair with his sword. He received a monastic robe from Brahma Ghatikara. From that moment till his death he wore nothing but the monastic robe.

A student of Buddhism, who is accustomed to think of the Buddha only as a human being, would naturally expect to find the Master represented in art, like any other Buddhist monk, with a shaven head.

As a matter of fact, Buddha is always represented as a deity, with a nimbus, certain physical peculiarities and all the characteristic marks proper to the conception of a Chakravartin or king of the world. Texts implying the deification of the Buddha and possessing all the characteristic marks of a Chakravartin are older than the oldest images of Buddha. We can thus suppose that the images of Buddha are intended to be visual realization of literary descriptions. The styles of art and fashion in iconography are characteristic of period and place.

Representations of the head

The heads of Buddha images may be classified as follows:

The head smooth, with a spirally twisted projection on the crown. ( See Picture. Go ) Early Kusana type.

The head with long flowing locks gathered together on top of the head to form a topknot. ( See Picture. Go ) Early Gandhara type.

The head with a cranial protuberance (Usnisa). The whole head together with the protuberance being covered by small curls. See Picture. Go The Usnisa appeared about the middle of the 2nd century AD. Both Gandhara and Mathura used this type. This type spread from both areas to the Far East and Southeast Asia. The vast majority of the Buddha images belong to this type. In a comparatively late form, the usnisa is surmounted by a flame tip, a flame niche or a lotus bud. In some of the Buddha images of Arakan, the usnisa itself is represented as a flame. See Picture. Go

4. The head with a crown: this type of Buddha is usually called crowned Buddha. Such images are common in the Eastern School of Bengal and Bihar and in Arakan School of art. See Picture. Go

The Hair

In the reliefs and sculptures showing the act of Bodhisattva cutting his hair, he is represented as grasping the whole of the hair in a single tress in the left hand, and cutting it with the sword in the other. The turban has already been removed. If this is the case the most natural way to represent the remaining hair will be to reduce the single thick tress to a single short curl. The See Picture. Go , which was an early kusana Buddha, represented the hair in this form. The smooth head seen in the picture meant simply that all the long hair was drawn up close and tight over the scalp into the single tress and not that it was shaved.

The Nidanakatha tells us that “the hair was reduced to two inches in length and curling from the right, lay close to the head, remaining of that length as long as he lived”.

A new type in which the whole head was covered with many small curls appeared about the middle of the second century, becoming almost universal, in Gandhara, in Mathura and in later art throughout the East and South-east Asia. The length and curling of the hair could still be accounted for from the literary tradition as mentioned in Nidanakatha. But to have curls with equal length all over the head, the original hair instead of being cut off at a single stroke, should had been done by a succession of strokes.

Anyway, we can note that the Buddha’s hair may be represented either in one curl or in many curls.

The cranial protuberance (Usnisa)

The Mahapadana-Sutta mentioned a list of the thirty two lakkhanas (superior marks) proper to a person, who is destined to become a Cakravartin or a Buddha. The last one being unhiso-siso. Similarly, the Mahavastu and Latita-Vistara mentioned unsiso-siso. The interpretation of this phrase is very important. Etymologically, it meant a sunshade or a turban (often a royal headdress) or a royal umbrella. The lakkhanas were recognized in infancy. They must be present on the body, since then, as a physical appearance. This results in a new interpretation of the phrase unhisa or usnisa as a cranial protuberance. That is, a bony protuberace on the top of the skull.

When the tonsure was reinterpreted as resulting in crop of short curls instead of a single coil, the cranial bump became con spiciously evident.

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan ( XIII )

2011-06-07T05:36:00.000-07:00

By U SAN THA AUNG

Different Indian Schools of Art

According to the Arakanese historical annals and the Selargiri tradition, Buddhism was introduced into Arakan during the life-time of the Buddha. The legend asserts that during the reign of king Candasuriya, the king of Dhanyawadi (Ancient Arakan) who was a contemporary of Buddha, Gotama Buddha visited Arakan with five hundred disciples. On the Selargiri mountain, which is opposite Kyauktaw town on the Kaladan river, Buddha held a prophetic discourse.

King Candasuriya went to Selargiri hill to meet the Blessed One. He invited the Blessed One to his capital which was about five miles to the east of the hill. The Blessed One stayed in the city for seven days. When Buddha made preparations to depart, the king requested the Buddha to leave an image of him. The Blessed One complied with the king’s request. With the consent of Buddha, Sakra and Visvakarman cast an exact replica of the Blessed One on the Visvakarman cast an exact replica of the north-east side of the inner palace of Dhanyawadi City. This image has been called Mahamuni since then. King Candasuriya erected the Mahamuni Shrine on the Sirigutta hill in commemoration of Buddha’s visit and the casting of his image. See Picture. Go

Apart from this tradition, we have found miniature stupas with Yedharma verses on them (Chapter V) and also many dedicatory stone inscriptions, dedicating the building of stupas and caitya, (Chapter VII and XI) all around the old cities of Dhanyawadi and Vesali. We can determine the dates of these inscriptions palaeogaphically and can state that the earliest ones were inscribed during the fourth and the fifth centuries A.D. We thus have solid evidence that Buddhism flourished in Arakan not later than the above mentioned period. In addition to these inscriptions we have found many Buddha images of various types of ruined ancient stupas and cetis. Miniature cetis, (Chapter XII) dedicatory bronze bells, (Chapter IX) copper plate land grant for the repair and maintenance of vihara built for Buddhist monks (Chapter VIII) and lamps used for worship of Buddha images (Chapter X) have also been found.

Indian Schools of Art

Independent Ancient Arakan which lay beyond the eastern frontier of Ancient India was naturally influenced by the Ancient Indian Schools of Art during the succeeding centuries. It will not be out of place, therefore to first survey here, very briefly, the different Ancient Indian Schools of Art before we survey the Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan.

Scholars of Buddhist Art in Ancient India generally classify the Schools of Art as follows.

1) The Mauryan School of Art

The earliest school of art belongs to the Mauryan period in the eastern provinces of Northern India. Some examples of the specimens and on the inscribed pillars of Asoka in the northern district of but either their earlier date has not been confirmed or is still a matter of controversy.

2) The Gandhara School of Art

The next is the Gandhara School of Art which came into being in the second century B.C. It has left many specimens of its production scattered over the North western districts of ancient India (Afghanistan and western Punjab). The sculptures left are mainly Buddhisftic and portray scenes from the life of the Buddha and also those of his previous existences. Besides the Buddha images, there are images of Kubera, Jambhala, Maitreya, Indra, Hariti and unidentified Bodhisattva images. The most flourishing period of the Gandtra art was during the reigu of King Kaniska, the great Kushan Emperor.

3) The Mathura School of Art

The Mathura School followed closely. It can be either contemporaneous or somewhat later than the Gandhara School. The schools left numerous Buddha and Bodhisattva images along Tantric flavor are found in this school Not even the images of Avalokitesvara and Manjusri were found.

The Mathura sculptures included the following events of the life of Buddha. (1) Birth, (2) Illumination or Sambodhi, (3) First Sermon, (4) Visit of Indra to Buddha, (5) Buddha thinking of leaving his palace, (6) Buddha leaving his palace, (7) the change of garments, (8) Descent from Heaven of the thirty three gods, (9) The gift of the Jetavana, (10) The Taming of the elephant Nalargiri, (11) The presentation of alms bowls, and (12) Death or mahaparinirvana. Apart from these, many of the Jataka stories are also represented in this school. The Mathura school extended to the early Gupta period.

The bas relief's of Bharhut and Sanchi show the majority of human figures wearing a peculiar headdress. It appears that the Gandhara school influence this school during the first decades of the second century A.D. The important feature borrowed from the Gandhara School was the representation of the scenes of the life of the Buddha.

4. The Benares School of Art or the Magadha School of Art

The next is the Benares School. It may also be called the Magadha School. This school of art belongs to the early Gupta period. This school included the images found in Sarnath, Nalanda, Odantapuri, Gaya and other ancient sites in Bihar. The majority of the sculptures are Buddhist. A new form of bas-reliefs representing scenes from the life of Buddha are produced which are entirely different from the old bas-reliefs of Sanchi and Bharhut. They are in the form of steles.

5. The Eastern School of Bengal and Bihar

A new school of sculptures rose in the North Eastern Provinces of India in the later part of the mediaeval period. That is, from the middle of the eighth century A.D. to the end of the tenth. The period coincides with the rise of Palas and the new school is therefore also called the Pala School of Art. But we must note that this school of art should not be identified with Palas alone. Because, there is no epigraphic evidence to show that any part of the Eastern Bengal was included in the dominions actually ruled by the Pala kings. The ancient kingdoms of Eastern Bengal were Vanga or Harikela and Samatata. These places were firmly under the control of the Candra kings. So, we will generalize the name of this school as the Eastern School of Bengal and Bihar. The Artists in this school attenuate the limbs in accordance with the favourite descriptions of Indian poets: their aim being the reproduction of sublime beauty in figures.

In this school, artists developed new forms of representation of the important incidents of the life of Buddha. Two different styles of adaptation of the bas-reliefs can be noticed. The first consists of the representations of a single incident of Buddha’s life in the form of an image. In the second style an image of Buddha representing one particular incident of the Blessed One’s life surrounded by numerous other images representing the majority of the important incident.

The development of the second style can be explained as follows. Buddha on his death-bed, in answer to his well loved disciple Ananda’s question, mentioned four places which an honourable worshipper should visit with religious emotion. They are those of his Birth, his Enlightenment, hi First Sermon, and his Parinirvana. These four scenes were common to almost all the steles which show the scenes from the life of the Buddha. But the artists and the sculptors were not long content with these alone. In course of time the number of scenes increased. Finally the number and order of scenes tend to get fixed at eight scenes. Steles having more than eight have also been found.

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan ( XII )

2011-06-07T05:35:00.000-07:00

By U SAN THA AUNG

Ancient Miniature Bronze “Cetis” of Vesali

In Burmese, the solid religious edifice of the Buddhists is called a ceti. This is an abbreviation of the Indian word “caitya”, which may generally be translated as something built or piled up. The word is used for funeral mounds; built in honour of heroes, teachers or prophets. The ceti is an object of veneration and serves as a place of worship.

A ceti is called a pagoda win English. This is a foreign word and is not used by the Burmese people.

In Burma, cetis are memorials in monumental form, constructed mainly to preserve the memory of the Buddha. Most of these contain relics of the Buddha, his images or scripture, recording his teachings. They are placed in sealed chambers known as relic chambers often located in the basement, and sometimes up in the datu-gabbha which lies between the bell and the finial.

In the building of cetis, Buddhists are motivated by certain sentiments the building of a ceti si considered an act of great religious spells elevation to a better life in the hereafter or elevation to some heavenly abode or even to nirvana in some future existence. People, by the generations, can also use these cetis for religious worship and for the practice of Buddhism. The cetis themselves help ensure the preservation and perpetuation of the religion for a long time.

A typical solid ceti consists of the following essential parts:

1) The base platform; the plinth

2) Receding terraces;

3) The bell;

4) The spire with mouldings tapering upwards;

5) Lotus petals;

6) The banana bud;

7) The umbrella.

In general, therefore, a ceti is an edifice which possesses all the essential parts mentioned above. These different parts are ornamented and decorated in many beautiful ways. At the corners of the plinth we may find guardian animals, (mythical or otherwise). Some cetis have beautifully executed niches in the body with figures of the Buddha facing the four cardinal points. The terraces are polygonal in shape and may have floral edges. There may be small cetis or kalasa pots at the corners of the terraces. The number of terraces varies with different cetis. Above the terraces comes the bell. On top of the bell is the ringed spire telescopically tapering upwards? At the apex of the spire are the down-turned and upturned lotus petals with a row of ornamental beads in-between. Above the lotus petal mouldings, is the banana bud? An artistic hti or umbrella crowns the whole edifice.

There are many cetis built by various kings of the Mrauk-Oo dynasty (1430-1784 A.D), still standing in Arakan. They are generally similar in structure and differ only in details. Each of them presents some interesting and individual features. But one very rarely come been built by earlier kings, and records of such cetis, inscribed on stones, have been discovered. These cetis have either collapsed due to weathering, or been destroyed by vandalism, or been encased in pagodas built by later kings.

However, from the ruins of old cetis or stupas built on or near the old Vesali city site, we have recovered a few miniature bronze cetis. As the ruined cetis or stupas may be dated somewhere about 1000 A.D (i.e before the fall of Vesali), we may assume that the bronze miniature cetis were made about the same time or even earlier. Looking at these miniature cetis, one is tempted to pose the question: Are these miniature cetis representations of the monumental cetis in existence at that period? No one can say for sure. Anyway it is interesting to compare and find out the similarities between miniature cetis and the full-size cetis existing at the present time.

See Picture. Go I now present three miniature bronze cetis, which have come to my notice. The first one was found in Tharlarwaddy village which is located within the southern city walls of old Vesali city. The second one was found in Dharmarit village which lies very close to the old Vesali site. The exact location where the third one was found is unknown.

All the three miniature cetis have conical structure. They are thus in stable equilibrium and are in no danger of falling down by themselves from slight disturbances.

All of them have miniature image halls placed on high decorated pedestals. The cetis proper are placed on top of these image halls.

The first miniature ceti ( See Picture. Go ) has a square pedestal wrought in the form of a royal throne. At the four corners of the base platform are four guardian animals. It is difficult to distinguish whether they are lions or dogs. Most probably they are lions; on the pedestal is the image hall. This tiny hall has four openings decorated with arches, and each opening faces one of the cardinal directions. The design of the arches over the openings is similar to the structure behind of the arches over the openings is similar to the structure behind the thrones of the Arakanese kings. Looking through the arches we can see four seated Buddha images in bhumisparsa-mudra, in the tiny hall, with their backs to the central pilaster. Three circular bands, successively diminishing in diameter, thus forming receding terraces, are placed on the square roof of the image hall. Then comes the bell. The lip of the bell flares out to encompass the topmost circular band. The curve of the bell is first concave and then convex towards the top. The bell is decorated with rings. Above the bell is the datu-gabbha. Above this is the spire, with moulding telescopically tapering upwards. The mouldings are nine in number. The topmost moulding contains the dawn turned lotus petals. After this comes a ring separating the down turned petals from the upturned petals. Above the lotus petal mouldings is the banana bud. There is no hti on top of the banana bud on this miniature ceti.

The second ceti ( See Picture. Go ) also has a square pedestal, although of a different design. The four corners of the base platform are guarded by four mythical animals, each having the head and torso of a man attached to a lion’s body, which in turn divides into two towards the rear, thus forming an artistically balanced corner decoration. The four corners at the top of the pedestal have miniature caityas. There is an image hall on the pedestal with four openings decorated with arches in the four cardinal directions. The design of the arches of this ceti is different from that of the first ceti. Again there are four seated Buddha images in bhumisparsa mudra with their backs to the pilaster inside the hall. There are five receding terraces placed on the square roof of the image hall. Above these is the bell. The bell is decorated with a ring around the middle. The datu-gabbha which lies between the bell and the spire is not as prominent as in the first ceti. The spire consists of nine layers of mouldings tapering telescopically upwards. The uppermost moulding is decorated with down turned lotus petals. Then comes the ornamental beads and the upturned petals Above the lotus petal mouldings is the banana bud. Above the banana bud is the hti.

The third ceti ( See Picture. Go ) is a rare type. It has a pentagonal pedestal. At the five corners of the base platform are five guardian lions. There is a circular seat decorated with flower petals on the pedestal. The image hall is placed on this seat. This hall has five openings decorated with arches similar in design to the structure backing the throne of kings. There are five seated Buddha images in bhumispara mudra within the arches. Above the roof of the pentagonal image hall are the circle is smoother than from square to circle of the former cetis. There are three circular terraces, bare of decoration. On top of these is another circular seat decorated with flower petals. The bell is placed on this. The bell has three rings round its middle. There is no datu-gabbha above the bell. The ringed spire is placed immediately on top of it. The spire which telescopically tapers upwards, consists of twenty rings. The banana bud on top of the spire cannot be seen properly because it is hidden by the hti, which has a peculiar shape.

After a careful study of the structure of these miniature cetis, none of which is much more than a cubit in height, one can but wonder at the striking similarities between these little cetis of the past and the big modern cetis to be seen today. Who were the craftsmen who can these miniature bronze cetis? Did they first draw plans of the structure before casting the citis? How did they draft the details or section? How did they prepare the models? Were these made of wood or clay? There are so many questions we cannot answer. But one thing is certain. Whoever these craftsmen is bronze may have been, there is no denying of their fine eye and skill, which are apparent in their handiwork.

http://arakanlibrary.tripod.com/ancientarakan

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan ( XI )

2011-06-07T05:32:00.000-07:00

By U SAN THA AUNG

This piece of stone inscription (See Plate 24 )GO was found in Vesali village which is situated five miles north of Mrauk_Oo. It was actually found somewhere on the brick mound which is situated at the edge of the so-called canal. This place is situated at the southwest corner of Vesali village and the northwest corner of Tharlarwaddy village.

We can well imagine that about one thousand two hundred years ago, the so-called canal was the moat of the Vesali inner city or palace, and the mound, a spot at the southwest corner of the moat. From the contents of the inscription we can infer that this stone inscription has fallen out of a now-ruined ceti [of which there is no longer any trace at present] which formerly stood on that mound.

Script and size of the inscribed stone

The script was inscribed on a piece of stone slab 9 inches in length and 7 inches in breadth. The script resembles that of the Anandacandra inscription, inscribed on the west face of a stone pillar, now to be seen at the Shittaung Phara at Mraunk-Oo. The characters illustrated here appear to be a little earlier than the Anandacandra inscription, as can be inferred from the way gha and sa were written. The characters are also more square in form. Again unlike the dandas used in the Anandacandra inscription, the first member of the double dandas curves inwards, as in earlier Vesali inscriptions. After the final dandas, there is a symbol consisting of a circle with four V shapes, above, below and on either side of the circle, followed by two double dandas.

The upper portion of the stone slab has broken off and been lost. The missing part probably contained the beginning of the inscriptions, which normally would have mentioned the name of the donor and of his ancestors. We are left with only ten lines of inscription. The language of the inscription is Sanskrit. The lines illustrated in Plate 24 belong to two complete verses. The first verse being in Vasantatilaka metre and the second in anustubh sloka. The missing part probably contained one verse. The inscription commemorates the construction of a caitya (ceti). A line by line transliteration of the characters from the stone slab to modern Burmese characters is shown in plate 24.

Palaeographic Determination of Date

Palaeographically, we can assign the inscription to the late 7th or early 8th centuries, possibly to the reign of Dharmacandra, (740-720 A.D), the father of Anandacandra.

TEXT

Verse 1. (Lost)

Verse 2. punyam mayaptamatulam yamihadya caityam nispadya tena bhavasagrato hi param, trsma taranga bhrsa cancala raudra nadat satvah prayantu sukhina trimala prahinah.

Verse 3. yati prajvalitam ghoram bhedako rauravam param, divyakalpa sahasrani svarge tisthati palaka iti

Translation

As I have completed the building of the ceti in this place today, I have gained the incomparable nerit. For the meritorious deed I have done let all beings be able to discard the three impurities (lobha, dosa, moha) and cross the ocean of becoming which is roaring fiercely due to the waves of craving and striking violently, and reach the other shore (nirvana) happily.

Verse 3.

The one who destroys the ceti goes to terrible and flaming “roruwa” hell after death and the one who looks after (it) stays in heaven for thousands of heavenly aeons. This is the end.

We should note that to attain nirvana, one has to discard the three impurities (lobha, dosa, moha). This is stated in the inscription. Discarding the three impurities is nothing but purifying one’s own mind. This is the teaching of Buddha and the Buddhism at that time was based on the teachings of Buddha. (See verse 183 of the Dhamapada).

The ceti mentioned in the inscription is no longer in existence. But we still have the dedicatory inscription with us. What was the shape of the ceti? How large and how beautiful was it? We can only speculate and dream about what the answers to these questions may be.

A Ceti Dedicatory Inscription from Eighth Century Vesali Site of find
Text Box: Back

Arakan Library was founded by a group of Arakan Action Association (AAA) in exile in Thailand from Burma in 2007 doing to voice for the knowledge, the people democratic and human rights.

Yati Reachers, goes

Prajvalitam Flaming brilliantly

Ghoram Terribly frightening

Bhedako The one who destroys

Rauravam “roruwa” hell

Param After death

Divya kalpa Time scale of devas; heavenly aeons

Sahasrami Thousands

Svarge Heaven

Tisthati Stay

Palaka The one who looks after

Iti This is the end

Punyam Meritorious deed

Maya Myself

Atam Gained, attained

Atulum Incomparable

Yam This

Iha In this place

Adya Today

Caityam Ceti

Nispadya Completed, finally done

Tena That is why

Bhavasagrato Ocean of becoming

Param To the other shore

Trsna Craving

Taranga Waves

Bhrsa Violently

Cancala Moving and striking

Raudra Frightening

Nadat Fierce, roaring

Satvah Living beings

Prayantu Let them reach

Sukhina Happily

Trimala Three impurities (lobha, dosa, moha)

Prahinah Discard

Verse 1. Lost. Might have contained the names of the donor and his ancestors.

Verse 2.

As I have completed the building of the ceti in this place today, I have gained the incomparable nerit. For the meritorious deed I have done let all beings be able to discard the three impurities (lobha, dosa, moha) and cross the ocean of becoming which is roaring fiercely due to the waves of craving and striking violently, and reach the other shore (nirvana) happily.

Verse 3.
The one who destroys the ceti goes to terrible and flaming “roruwa” hell after death and the one who looks after (it) stays in heaven for thousands of heavenly aeons. This is the end.

We should note that to attain nirvana, one has to discard the three impurities (lobha, dosa, moha). This is stated in the inscription. Discarding the three impurities is nothing but purifying one’s own mind. This is the teaching of Buddha and the Buddhism at that time was based on the teachings of Buddha. (See verse 183 of the Dhamapada).

The ceti mentioned in the inscription is no longer in existence. But we still have the dedicatory inscription with us. What was the shape of the ceti? How large and how beautiful was it? We can only speculate and dream about what the answers to these questions may be.

A Ceti Dedicatory Inscription from Eighth Century Vesali Site of find
Text Box: Back

Arakan Library was founded by a group of Arakan Action Association (AAA) in exile in Thailand from Burma in 2007 doing to voice for the knowledge, the people democratic and human rights.

Text Box:

Yati Reachers, goes

Prajvalitam Flaming brilliantly

Ghoram Terribly frightening

Bhedako The one who destroys

Rauravam “roruwa” hell

Param After death

Divya kalpa Time scale of devas; heavenly aeons

Sahasrami Thousands

Svarge Heaven

Tisthati Stay

Palaka The one who looks after

Iti This is the end

The one who destroys the ceti goes to terrible and flaming “roruwa” hell after death and the one who looks after (it) stays in heaven for thousands of heavenly aeons. This is the end.

We should note that to attain nirvana, one has to discard the three impurities (lobha, dosa, moha). This is stated in the inscription. Discarding the three impurities is nothing but purifying one’s own mind. This is the teaching of Buddha and the Buddhism at that time was based on the teachings of Buddha. (See verse 183 of the Dhamapada).

The ceti mentioned in the inscription is no longer in existence. But we still have the dedicatory inscription with us. What was the shape of the ceti? How large and how beautiful was it? We can only speculate and dream about what the answers to these questions may be.

A Ceti Dedicatory Inscription from Eighth Century Vesali Site of find
Text Box: Back

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan ( X )

2011-06-07T05:22:00.000-07:00

By U SAN THA AUNG

Five Ancient Bronze Lamps

A lamp is a vessal for burning oil with a wick, and so giving light. The oil used may be animal, fish or vegetable oil.

Of all the forms of gifts to the gods (devadanam), there is perhaps none which can equal in merit-winning capacity, that which is offered in the form of lamps or dipan, (from the Sanskrit dipa ”to light”). All over the world, the lighting of lamps form an assential part of tample and shrine worship.

When such gifts (in the form of lamps) were made in ancient days, they were usually accompanied by the offering of cows, buffaloes, sheep or goats, from the milk of which the necessary clarified butter was extracted for the perpetual use of the lamps in the temples or shrines.

Many ancient bronze lamps have been found, in Arakan, wrought in various forms. I now present fives such lamps which were found in the vicinity of Vesali and Dhanyawadi. There of the lamps are in the form of human statuettes bearing the vessel for the oil in their hands. The other two contain the figure of birds in their design. Two of the lamps in the form of humans, represent women and the other represents a hero prince.

The first lamp with a human figure, ( See Picture. Go ) was found by the late U San Shwe Bu at Prinedaung village, about six miles north of Vesali. The height of the lamp, including the pedestal, is nine inches. It represents a woman holding out in front of her, a rather elongated spear-shaped receptacle, intended to hole the oil which is meant to be burned before the image of the Buddha, by means of wicks. We can notice six indentations at the edges of the receptacle for placing such wicks.
The woman stands on a high pedestal. Her features are sharp and pointed. The ears are large and the nose is long, prominent and well defined. The hair is coiled on the crown of the head, slightly pushed back. She wears a plain necklace and an amulet on each upper arm, fastened by a broad band. There is a bangle round each wrist and a similar one round the middle of each forearm. Apart from these few ornaments, the upper body is bare. A girdle encircles the waist, and another band lower down over the hips fastens the close-fitting drapery which falls in folds to a length which reached just below the knees. One end of the cloth is apparently brought from the back the thighs and after being slipped over the girdle, it is allowed to fall in front in graceful folds.

The statuette is similar to the South Indian statuettes. But the peculiar mode of wearing the hair in a top knot and the arrangement of the drapery, are unlike anything in the collections of India. Indeed the general impression suggests that the statuette is more inclined towards either the Egyptain or Assyrian rather than towards the Indian type in both design and executation.

There is a line of inscription in Arakanese characters, around the upper part of the pedestal. The inscription reads:

Ayana kaung Mu (the gift of Ayana). This name immediately reminds me of the name of the donor of the Vesali caitya bell, Kimmayana. If we remove the prefix Kim from that name we are left with Ayana, which seems to have been a common name in Arakan in olden days. The words Kim is a proto-western Tibeto-Burmese word meaning “house”.

The inscription is of particular importance especially when considered in relation to the statuette with which it is associated. For, to whatever age the statuette may have belonged, it is difficult to get away from the inference that Arakanese literature must have also been current at that time.

According to Arakanese historians, Vesali cased to be the capital of Arakan about the middle of the 10th century. So though there is nothing definite to go by in determining the age of this figurine, if any reliance can be placed on the data afforded by Arakanese historians, it may confidently be assumed that it must belong to the tenth century or earlier. The statuette is at present in Akyab.

The second lamp in the form of a woman ( See Picture. Go ) was found at a site near the Mrauk-Oo Vesali road just before one reaches Vesali. It is a little shorter than the first, being only about four inches high. Here also the figure is that of a woman. She is depicted in the act of holding out in front is that of her, some type of vessel (missing) intended to hold oil and the wick. She also stands on a pedestal which is only half an inch in height. Nothing is inscribed on the pedestal.

This second lady seems to be better dressed than the lady of the first lamp. She wears a headdress and her hair falls behind her back neatly and stylishly braided into a long single plait. Her features are also sharp and well-defined. She wears a pair of large circular earrings and a necklace with a small locket. ( See Picture. Go ) She is dressed in a short-sleeved blouse with an open neck. She has a bangle around each wrist. Her pants are a tight fit and reach down to her ankles where they are folded slightly. An apron with naturalistic folds is fastened above the hips. She wears a pair of ornamental ankles rings. The statuette is at present in Mrauk-Oo.

The third lamp (See Picture. Go ) was found in the vicinity of Dhanyawadi. It is about the same size as the second lamp. The figure is that of a hero-prince. He wears a helmet that has a mask covering the face. He appears to be wearing a coat of mail with air holes around the neck, shoulder and breast. He stands in a crossed legged posture on a pedestal of pyramid form. A pasoe (ceremonial longyi) is gracefully worn round the waist and falls in folds to vover the knees. One end of the pasoe is brought round from the back and allowed to fall in front in graceful folds. This end is held between the crossed legs. The figures has its arms outstretched as if holding out some sort of vessel to hold the oil and the wick. The vessel is missing, but as the arms are stretched quite far apart, it must have been a wide one. There is a handle fixed to the back of the figure. This lamp is at present in Kyauktaw town.

The fourth lamp is a hanging lamp with its bowl surrounded by birds in flight. The lamp has a hook or loop at the top by which it can be suspended.( See Picture. Go ) Below this is a cinquefoil handle. The upper and outer angles are decorated with arabesques. There are nine triangular projections for wicks coming out from the central circular oil-bowl. Each of these alternates with a bird in flight, with wings outstretched. Only two of the birds remain completely intact, the rest have lost their heads. The base of the lamp is also decorated with a wide band with holes punched through it to present a lacy effect. The lamp can also be placed on the table instead of being hung from the rafters. This lamp was found inside the old Vesali walls and is at present in Mrauk-Oo.

The fifth lamp ( See Picture. Go ) is also a hanging lamp. It has only one bird in its design, without feathers, but with its bones and spinal column prominently displayed. If we look at the lamp from above we will see that it resembles a four-pointed star, with the bird over one point. There is a ring for suspension at the back of the bird’s head. The bird itself is hollow, appearing like a skeleton, probably to allow free air circulation. Each of the four triangular projections can hold a wick. The whole lamp is ingeniously balanced so that while in a hanging position it will not be tilted. It can also be placed on a table instead of being hung. This lamp was also found somewhere inside Vesali together with the fourth lamp described above, and is at present in Mrauk-Oo.

It is a great pity that no competent authority has ever thought it fit to properly survey the site of this famous old city of Vesali and to excavate it. In days long gone by, more than a thousand ships are said to have annually put in at the harbour of Vesali, laden with merchandise of all descriptions extracted from the great emporiums of the Eastern World. One has simply to understand its past history, its former greatness, to enable one to form a pretty shrewd idea of the store of priceless art treasures lying buried beneath the soil of its site.

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan ( IX )

2011-06-07T05:20:00.000-07:00

By U SAN THA AUNG

Two Inscribed Ancient Bronze Bells

All over the world bells have been rung to attract the attention of people. They ring out the hour of the day, call people to prayer at home or in the monastery, announce news of joy or sorrow, and remind people of something of the past.

The bell in the monastery sounds the signal for rising at a particular time in the morning, it indicates the time for the morning meal, the time for prayer and it sounds the retiring signal at night.

In Burma, we have caitya bells (Pagoda bells) also. They are hung under the hti or the finial. Their constant ringing remind celestial under the hti or the finial. Their constant ringing remind celestial devas, men and creatures of the nether world, of Buddh’s endless compassion and charity, and it is hoped people would thus be persuaded to follow Buddha’s path and thus gain release from the cycle of rebirths and attain nirvana.

People donate bells producing sweet sounds, to gain merit. They believe that by donating bells that produce sweet sounds, they will have sweet voices in their next existence. In general, people donate bells primarily to gain any wish relating to the voice, in their next existence.

So far, we have found two inscribed ancient bells from the vicinity of vesali in Arakan. One of the bells seems to be a caitya bell and the other a monastery bell. Both of them are made of bronze, that is, an alloy of copper and tin. The dates of their casting can be determined paleographically. Both of them are found by this method to have been casted in the sixth century A..D.

The caitya bell ( See Picture. Go was found in the vicinity of Ahpaungdaw Dattaung ceti which is situated close to Tharlarwaddy Village, near the South-west corner of the outer wall of Vesali about 12 years age. It was brought to my notice in September, 1973. The bell is about 11.5 c.m. high, the inner diameter of the mouth is 9.9 c.m. and the outer diameter 11.5 c,m. It weighs over 2 lbs. The shape resembles the top part of a stupa. There are two bands at the lip of the bell. It is thus thickened to strengthen it at the point of clapper impact. This thickening of the lip also improves the tone of the bell. There are two bands bare of decoration, just below the neck of the bell. From the size of the neck which has an inner diameter of 2 c.m. and outer diameter of 3.4 c.m. it can be inferred as a caitya bell.

Two lines of writings have been inscribed around the centre. The first line contains 18 words endowed with vowelmarks or conjunct Arakanese and Sanskrit. They record the donation of the bell, which is described as a naraghanta. The inscription ends with the so-called “garuda” symbol, found at the end of the 8th century caitya inscription and Anandacandra’s parsasti of Arakan.

TEXT

matapitroh hiritathettr Kimmayan Dhanayah - - nama

naraghantayad datteyam samarira svarah

Word for word translation in Sanakrit does not make sense as some of the words are ancient Arakanese. Translation can be roughly rendered as follows.

Obeisance - - - for the welfare and Punya of (my) mother and father, Kimmayana - - - this nara bell with a sweet sound is given.

At least one personal name can be identified. This is, Kimmayana. The palaeography is exactly the same as that of the copper plate. Therefore, it can be dated around 507 A.D. The copper plate grant was issued by a Vesali king saying that a village by the name of Dengutta was granted by Kimmajuvdevi in favour of a vihara (Buddhist mon-satery) built by herself.

Notice that the nemes of the donor of the bell and the donor of the village to be somewhat related.

The second bell, (see plate 18) which seems to be a monastery bell was found by the late U San Shwe Bu at Prinedaung village, about six miles north of Vesali in 1918. The bell is 9.8 c.m. high and has an inner diameter of 9.5 c.m. and outer diameter of 10.5 c.m. It weighs about one pound. This bell is of smaller structure then the first one but is better cast. It weighs only half that of the first one. The neck of the bell is rather wide and seems to have an arrangement for fixing a handle. Hence it is inferred as a monastery bell. It has a band below the neck decorated with flower petals. There also bands without decorations around the shoulder and the lip. The lip of the bell is also thickened.

Here again, two lines of writing were inscribied between the bands around the shoulder and the lip. The writings can be palaeographically assigned to the pre-or early Niticandra period, that is around 520 A.D/ The writings reveal the dedication by a monk for the benefit of his spiritual preceptors, etc, and his mother and father,

TEXT

deyadharma’ yam Sakyabikso ………………. yac atra punyam tad bhavatu matapitrpurvangamam krtva.

caryyipadhyayanam sarvvasatvanan ca anuttarajnanavaptaye iti. It can be translated as follows:

This is a pious offering of the Buddhist monk …………. May the merit that is therein be for the gaining of supreme knowledge (acquiring nirvana) by teachers, tutors and all beings in company with his mother and father.

Both these bells are at present in Akyab. These bronze bells show us that the people of Arakan of that age already possessed an advanced metallurgical technology.

The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan ( VIII )

2011-06-07T05:13:00.001-07:00

By U SAN THA AUNG

A Copper-Plate Land Grant

Site of find

A copper-plate, bearing writing on both sides, was discovered in Arakan about 40 years ago. See Picture. Go This is the only copper-plate found, so far, in Burma. the place where the plate was found was a small brick mound situated 2 furlongs south-west of Tharlarwaddy village. The village lies close to the Mrauk-Oo-Kyauktaw road which passes through the south-west section of the old Vesali city wall. The Vesali city site is about 5 miles north of Mrauk-Oo.

The plate was discovered accidentally while the brick mound was being removed by the owner of the plot who wished to dig a drainage channel for his farm.

The plate was bought by the late historian U Tha Tun Aung of Mrauk-Oo from the finder. During the second world war the Japanese soldiers took the plate and cut off two pieces, one at the top and the other the right hand portion of the plate, to test whether the plate was made of gold. They also carried out flame tests on the remaining back from the Japanese in this damaged condition. At present the plate is in the safe custody of the Archaeology Department of the Ministry of Culture in Rangoon.

Description of the plate

The plate has a big seal affixed to the left margin and lines of writing running along its length. The top length of the plate is 32.4 cm. and the bottom length is 30.5 cm. The breadth at the right end is 22.2 c.m. and it is 1.5 c.m. thick. It weighs 10 lbs.

It can be inferred that a strip of about 4 c.m. has been cut off along the top of the plate (really the top of the obverse but the bottom of the reverse). Since a single letter of the epigraph is usually about 0.8 c.m. in height while a conjunct or letter endowed with vowel marks has neatly double that length, we can infer that the lost part contained only two lines of writing on the first side of the plate. The reverse side has no engraved lines on the lost part.

This copper plate was a royal document issued by a Vesali king of the sixth century A.D. The grant of land for religious purposes was engraved on it. It contained well known imprecatory and benedictory stanzas written on the reverse side. These stanzas make it possihand side. By careful study of the stanzas we have found that seven or eight words endowed with being about 1 c.m broad, the measurement of length covered by seven or eight of them would suggest that the lost strip would be about 10 c.m. in breadth. By correcting these losses we can estimate the original size of the plate as about 42 c.m. in length and 26 c.m. in breadth.

The Seal

The obverse side of the seal seems to represent a recumbent bull which was the royal insignia of the Vesali kings and the reverse is probably the pericarp of a lotus symbols.

Palaeographic determination of date

These are twelve lines of writing on the obverse side of the plate. Since we have estimated that two lines at the top were cut off, the original number of lines on this side must be 14. There is no loss of any line on the reverse side which contains only 8 lines. Thus the writing on both sides of the plate originally contained 22 lines.

A palaeographic study of the characters of the present record shows that the characters exhibits a local modification of the late Brahmi of East India, which may be assigned to a date about the sixth century A.D. The engraving was very neatly and carefully done. See Picture Go for the alphabets used. The language of the document is Sanskrit, thought it contains local elements in the personal and geographical names.

The inscription was dated in the regnal reckoning of the issuer of the charter. It was the 11th regnal year of the king.

Since we have to assign the charter on palaeographical grounds to a date about the sixth century A.D., the king who issued the copper plate should be a member of the Candra dynasty of Arakan of the Second period.

The Candra dyanasty of Arakan

The early history of Arakan is best elucidated by the Anandacadra Inscription inscribed on the west face of a stone pillar now at shitthaung Pagoda at Mrauk-Oo. The inscription contains 69 lines. It is a prasasti of King Anandacandra who ruled Arakan about 720 A.D.

It has been dated on palaeographic grounds to the beginning of the 8th century A.D. by Dr. E.H. Johnston and Dr. D.C. Sircar. Refer back Chapter II for more details.

Issuer of the charter

Considering the Gupta style of representing the reigning monarch as a descendent of the founder of the family through a number of successive generations, which was borrowed by many dynasties, lines 1.8 of the record appear to have originally contained the names of eight kings, the last of them mentioned in line 8, being the issuer of the grant.

Line 1 may have thus contained the name of a king who was the founder of the royal family. The donor of the grant was then mentioned along with seven of his ancestors. It is not improbable that line 1 could have mentioned Dvencandra, the founder of the dynasty. In that case, it was Bhuticandra (No. 8) who was the father of Niticandra and ruled in 496-520 A.D., ie., about the beginning of the sixth century A.D., ( See Picture. Go ) who was probably the issuer of the charter. As the last line of the inscription indicates the date of issue as the 11th regnal year of the king, acception D.C. Sircar’s dates for the Candra kings, the inscription would have been engraved in 507 A.D.

The queen mothers

As lines 1 and 2 are lost we may start from line 3. Lines 3_8 mention six kings and describes them as padanudyata (meditating on or favoured by the feet of his predecessor), as Paramamahesvara (a devout worshipper of the god Mahesvara or Siva) and as born of a particular mahadevi (chief queen). The kings enjoyed the title of Maharajadhiraja, indicating independent and imperial status in the Gupta age.

It is very unfortunate indeed that the name of the issuer of the charter and all his ancestors are engraved on the end portion of the lines, which were cut off by the Japanese.

However, the names of the queens can be read in lines 4_8, the queen’s name in line 3 being damaged. Thus we are previlaged to know the donor’s mother, grand mother, great grand mother, great great grand mother and great great great grand mother. Their names were respectively Kalyanadevi, Kyawdevi, Sukanya devi, Kimdal devi and Kimton devi.
Out of these names, Kalyanadevi and Sukanyadevi suggest contact with Sanskrit tradition. Other names starting with Kim are worth nothing. They suggest Tibeto-Burman affiliations.

Persons addressed

In lines 9-10 the issuing king addresses the charter to the rulers of his own family and of other dynasties in respect of the grant.
Purpose of issuing the charter

Lines 10-13 state that a village called Dengutta was granted by Kimmajuvdevi in favour of a vihara (Buddhist monastery) built by herself. It is probable that she was the queen of Buticandra as the palaeography of the inscription points to the beginning of the 6th century and we know the name of the queen of Niticandra, the son of Bhuticandra, as Savitam Candrasriya from a seperatre inscription.

Kimmajuvdevi was doubtless a Buddhist, although her husband and his ancestors were mentioned as Paramamahesvara. So far as I have noticed, there is practically no evidence of Saivism in the archaeological assemblage of Arakan. It may be conjectured that Saivite ritual may have been confined to certain court ceremonies necessary to legitimize kingship, but incompatible with Buddhism, perfomed by a small group of court Brahmins.

Again the lines mentioned that the income derived from the gift village was meant to be utilized on behalf of the Ratna-traya (Ratnatray-opayogaya) in respect of the catushpratyana and the repairs of breaks, cracks, etc, in the monastery. The expression Ratna-traya (i.e the three Jewels) indicates the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha, while catush-pratyana are the four necessaries of the Buddhist priest, vizcivara (clothing), pindapata (food), sayanasana (bedding) and bhaishajya (medicine).

A damaged passage in lines 12-13 seems to suggest that the gift village was placed in charge of the fraternity of the holy monks of all lands including the elders of Jatavana, who were already in the monastery and who might in future come to reside there in. The original Jetavanna was in the suburbs of Sravasti (modern Set-Maheth in Uttar Pradesh), the capital of the ancient Kosala kingdom. It was built by the Financier Anathapindika for the use of the Buddha himself. It is difficult to say whether the original Jatavana is referred to in our record or whether it was an establishment in the neighbourhood of Arakan or elsewhere called by the ancient name.

The gift village called Dengutta is described as yielding 3000, the reference being apparently to the revenue income in the standard coin.

The boundaries of the village Dengutta are described in lines 13 -14 forming the concluding part of the writing on the obverse side of the plate. Unfortunately, the end of the lines being cut off, the boundaries in the east and the north of the gift village are lost. In the south, there were the Srilakkajola, a row of stone boulders and a mango tree, while Vangenkhalla lay on the west. The word jola seems to mean a channel and the word khalla seems to mean a canal.

Imprecatory and benedictory stanzes

The reverse of the plate starts with line 15 which contains the request of the issuer of the charter to the effect that those addressed should protect the gift out of a desire for religions merit (dharma-bhi-lasat) and out of great respect for the royal donor.

Lines 15-20 contain five of the well-known imprecatiory and benedictory stanzas identical to those found in the early 6th century inscriptions of Bengal. The verse were written by Vyasa and addressed confiscates land that has been given, whether by himself or another, becomes a worm in ordure, and sinks into hell together with his ancestors. The earth has been enjoyed by many kings, commencing belongs, at that time, the reward (of this grant that is now made, if he continue it): The giver of land enjoys happiness in heaven for sixty thousand years; (but) the confiscator (of a grant) and he who assents (to an act of confiscation) shall dwell for the same number of years in hell!”

Executor of the grant

Line 21 contains the name of the Mahamantrin (liberally, the great minster). His name was Rengadityadasa. He seems to be the Prime Minister of the king who issued the charter and may have been the executor of the grant.

Date of issue

The last line of the record contained the date of issue. It is the 11th regnal year of the king who issued the charter.

Present location of the village of Dengutta and the Vihara

The village of Dengutta must be close to the spot where the copper plate was found. That is to the south west of Vesali. The Vihara built by the queen might be on the spot where the tablet of auspicious symbols, lustration pot and two cart loads of artifacts, which I have mentioned in Chapter VI were found. That spot is also not far away from the spot where the copper plate was found. I am sure we will be richly rewarded if we could only excavate these spots.

The copper-plate grant, apart from giving us the interesting information presented above, provides us with a very neat and tidy example of the alphabets used in Arakan during the sixth century A.D. and before. See Picture. Go

http://arakanlibrary.tripod.com/ancientarakan